^JENWYORKBOTANICALGABp^

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU Of'fORESTRY— BULLETIN No. 32.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

A WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR
PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS.

BY

FREDERICK E. OLMSTED.

FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 9 2 .

BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

F<irt>)<kr, Giffohd Pinchot.

Assistant Forester, Overton W. Price.

Assistant Forester, George B. Sudworth.

Chief Clerk, Otto J. J. Luebkert.

Superintendent of Tree Planting, William L. Hall,

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agnculture.

Frontispiece.

Loblolly Pine and Hardwoods in Mixture on a Pine Flat.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY— BULLETIN No. 32.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

A WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR
PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS.

BY

LIBRARY

\L
QARpcN

FREDERICK E. OLMSTED,

FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 9 2 .

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Forestry,
Washington, D. C, March 12, 1902.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled "A
Working Plan for Forest Lands near Pine Bluff, Arkansas," pre-
pared by Frederick E. Olmsted, field assistant in the Bureau of
Forestry, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 32 of this
Bureau. This working plan is now in operation.

Very respectfully. Gifford Pinchot.

Forester.
Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.
2

INTRODUCTION.

A working plan is simply a scheme of management for a forest
tract. To prepare it a thorough study must be made not only of the
present character of the forest, but also of its capacity to furnish
future yields and of the conditions which will govern the transport
and marketing of the timber cut. Upon this study is based a system-
atic plan for lumbering. The point of view is purety practical; the
purpose is to prescribe cuttings which will not only pay, but will also
tend toward the gradual and sustained improvement of the forest. It
is a business policy recommended after an expert investigation.

In the preparation of a working plan two important points to be
determined arc: (1) The amount of timber standing; (2) the rate at
which the principal species are growing. This known, it is possible
to estimate what will be the yield of timber after a given number of
years, and also to calculate the amount of merchantable timber which
the forest is capable of producing each 3'ear, so that, if desired, the
annual cut may be made equal to the annual production and a sustained
yield of timber he assured.

On the tract of the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company one of the
chief objects in making a working plan was to determine whether the
present tract is large enough to furnish a sustained yield equal to the
yearly capacity of the mill, and if not, to estimate the additional area
necessary to secure such a result.

The stand of timber was determined in the following way: Strips 10
chains long, of which each 1<> chains in length made an area of 1 acre,
were run on compass courses through the forest, and on these strips
the diameters of all pine down to 2 inches and hardwoods down to 10
inches were measured with the calipers. These measurements were
recorded upon tally sheets, a separate sheet for each acre, and upon
them notes were made of the silvicultural condition and the merchant-
able quality of the stand. The strips were so run through all types of
forest as to afford a basis for a close estimate of the stand. These
'"valuation surveys " covered 1,900 acres, or about 2 per cent of the
total forest area.

The table giving the merchantable contents of pine in board feet was
constructed by scaling the logs of 025 felled trees. The rate of growth

3

INTRODUCTION.

for Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine was calculated from "stem analyses"
of the same number of specimens. These stem analyses included the
following measurements:

Diameter at 4.5 feet from the ground.

Diameter on the stump and at the top of each log, inside and
outside the bark.

Height of stump.

Length of each log and of the crown.
The rings were counted on the stump and at the end of each log,
and the distance to each ten-year point from the bark was measured.
From these measurements it was possible to ascertain the rate of
growth of the trees both in height and in diameter. No investigations
were undertaken of the rate of growth of the hardwoods.

The field expenses necessary to the preparation of this working plan
were borne by the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company.

CONTENTS

Part I. — The Timberlands: Pa s e -

7
General description

Market, taxes, and transportation -

Lumbering

Fire: Its influence upon the forest crop

13
Grazing

The forest

The merchantable forest

Pine lands

Stand of merchantable pine

The forest from a silvicultural standpoint

1Q

Pine ridge

99

Pine flat /z

Hardwood bottom *°

2fi
Silvicultural notes

Brief descriptions of the most important species 26

Shortleaf Pine 26

Loblolly Pine 33

Practical value of the Loblolly Pine as compared with the

Shortleaf Pine. . - - 36

Cow Oak 37

White Oak

Sweet Gum 38

White Ash

Shagbark Hickory

Holly 39

Hornbeam

Part II. — Forest Management:

Introduction

Timber yields

Effect of fire protection upon future yields

Sustained annual yield of the forest - 42

Sustained annual yield in relation to the present capacity of the mill

Interest returns on cut-over lands

44
Conclusions

Rules of management _

Cutting limit 6 >r pine -

Seed trees

Cutting limit for the hardwoods of the bottom lands 46

1 [eight of stumps

Protection against fire _

Care in felling.

47

I ospection '_

Summary <>f rules for lumbering

List of trees found

5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

Page.

Lobolly Pine and hardwoods in mixture on a pine flat Frontispiece.

Plate I. Fig. 1.— Blank caused by lumbering. Fig. 2.— Hardwoods on a pine

ridge 8

II. Fig. 1.— Pine ridge cut over ten years ago; run over by fire.

Fig. 2. — Pine flat cut over ten years ago; run over by fire. 8

III. Fig. 1.— Shortleaf Pine on a pine ridge. Fig. 2.— Loblolly Pine

on a pine flat 16

IV. Fig. 1. — Loblolly poles under mature Loblolly on a pine flat. Fig.

2. — Hardwood under mature pine on a pine flat 20

V. Fig. 1.— Sweet Gum and Willow Oak in a hardwood bottom.

Fig. 2.— Cow Oak and White Oak 24

VI. Fig. 1. — A slough in the hardwood bottoms; Cow Oak and

Willow Oak. Fig. 2.— A hardwood bottom 24

VII. Fig. 1.— Loblolly Pine. Fig. 2.— Shortleaf Pine 32

VIII. Fig. 1.— Reproduction of Loblolly Pine in an opening. Fig. 2.—

Hardwood reproduction under Loblolly 32

IX. Fig. 1.— Pine tops after aground fire. Fig. 2.— The steam skidder.. 44

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1.— Diagram showing the number of trees per acre for Shortleaf and
Loblolly Pine and for the two species combined on a basis of
diameter breasthigh 12

2. — Diagram showing the relation between diameter on the stump and

diameter breasthigh for Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine 13

3. — Diagram showing the merchantable contents in board feet for Short-
leaf and Loblolly Pine on the basis of diameter breasthigh. (Con-
tents by Doyle's Rule) 15

4. — Diagram showing the height growth of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine

on the basis of diameter breasthigh 29

5. — Diagram showing the diameter growth of Shortleaf and Loblolly

Pine on the basis of age 30

6.— Diagram showing the height growth of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine

on the basis of age 31

7. — Diagram showing the merchantable contents in board feet of Short-
leaf and Loblolly Pine on the basis of age. (Contents by Doyle's
Rule) 32

8.— Diagram showing the relation between the total height, merchant-
able length, crown length, and clear length for Shortleaf Pine on
the basis of diameter breasthigh 33

9. — Diagram showing the relation between the total height, merchant-
able length, crown length, and clear length for Loblolly Pine on
the basis of diameter breasthigh 36

6

A WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR
PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS.

PART I.

THE TIMBERLANDS.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

The timberlands of the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company are
situated in portions of Grant, Jefferson, and Saline counties. Ark.,
and lie south of the Arkansas River about 100 miles from where it
empties into the Mississippi. They comprise 105,000 acres, about 5
per cent of which is bare of merchantable timber. The property is
very much cut up by farm lands and other private holdings.

The tract is generally flat, except in the extreme northern portion,
where it is somewhat hilly. The elevation above sea level varies from
200 to 300 feet. All the principal streams flow in a southerly direction.
The most important are Saline River, Lost Creek. Hurricane Creek,
and Darysaw Creek, each of which has a very slight fall and an exceed-
ingly winding course. During the rainy season of March and April,
and after any heavy rainfall, the streams overflow their banks and
flood the bottom lands, making travel difficult or impossible.

The tract is, for the most part, abundantly supplied with roads, but
as a rule these are poorly made and badly cared for, and are practically
impassable in wet weather.

With the exception of a small area in the northern portion of the
tract the geological formation is alluvial. The soils are deep sandy
loams and loamy sands, and contain a slight admixture of clay. Beds
of gravel or pebble are very rare. On the small area in the north,
igneous rocks, chiefly granites, occur to some extent, and local deposits
of bauxite have recently been discovered and are now being mined.
Where granites occur the soils are shallower than on the alluvial plain.
Both the low, flat country of the south and the hilly Land of the
north are covered almost entirely by virgin growth of mixed pine and
hardwoods, while a pure hardwood forest is characteristic of the
bottom lands along the streams.

MARKET, TAXES, AND TRANSPORTATION.
Although present prices for Yellow Bine are somewhat lower than
usual, there is a very good demand for all description- of pine lumber.
The higher grades are -hipped to the States of the Middle West or

8 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

East, while the lower grades find a read}' market in the Southwest.
There is every reason to believe that this demand will steadily increase.

The average taxes amount to about $18 per $1,000 of valuation, or
1.8 per cent. ' As yet no assessment value has been placed on cut-over
lands, but it is expected that these will be assessed at $1 per acre.
This is much too high and plainly unfair, since they are hard to sell
at 50 cents per acre. Taxes on cut-over lands play a very important
part in conservative lumbering, and it is to be hoped that every effort
will be made to secure just and fair taxation.

An excellent system of transportation is already in operation. It
consists of a main line of railroad with radiating branch lines. The
main line, of which 12 miles are already completed, runs from the
mill at Pine Bluff through the center of operations in the woods, and
is intended to serve eventually as a freight and passenger line con-
necting Pine Bluff with Sheridan and Benton. The " spurs," or
branch lines, are merely temporary, and are built in such a way that
after serving their purpose by transporting to the main line the tim-
ber from the area which they tap, the ties and rails may be taken up
and laid again through that next to be logged.

In this way the logs are transported by rail direct to the mill. This
system has proved to be the best one under the local conditions.

LUMBERING.

The lumbering done upon the tract previous to its purchase by the
Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company was insignificant. Only over
very small areas in the hardwood bottom lands Cow Oak and White
Oak had been cut for staves, and on the pine lands little patches here
and there were thinned out long ago for the small mills. In the
spring of 1900 the company began lumbering about 10 miles from
Pine Bluff, and cuttings have since continued steadily. It is now
intended to carry on the lumbering both winter and summer until the
whole tract of 100,000 acres has been cut over.

Following the recommendations of Mr. Griffith, of the Bureau of
Forestry, who made the preliminary examination of the tract, pine is
now being cut to a diameter limit of 18 inches on the stump. The
trees are cut at about 18 inches from the ground, and the last log-cut
is made well up in the crown, generally at a diameter of about 14
inches. As the hardwood trees growing in mixture with the pine are
of inferior quality, it is onl} T very rarely that one is felled. Lumber-
ing of the hardwoods on the bottom lands has not as yet been begun.

The logs are either snaked or hauled to the railroad by horses, or
skidded to the tracks and loaded upon cars by a steam skidder, the
latter method having so far proved cheaper and fairly satisfactory.
(See PI. IX, fig. 2.) The company's mill at Pine Bluff is expected to
saw annually from 40,000,000 to 50,000,000 feet of lumber.

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

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31
9

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m

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Plate II.

FlG -j — pine Ridge cut over Ten Years ago. Run over by Fire.

Fig. 2.-Pine Flat cut over Ten Years ago. Run over by Fire.

fire: its influence upon the forest crop. 9

fire: its influence upon the forest crop.

Conservative lumbering can never be successfully carried out in this
region unless precautions are taken against fire.

On the valuation surveys notes were kept of fire damage, and it was
found that only 5 per cent of the total area had escaped more or less
serious fire during the last ten years. In this region the fires are
seldom more than ground fires, consuming the leaf mold, grass, and
other ground cover, seedlings, and .voung growth of all kinds, but very
rarely burning a tree which has passed the sapling stage. Where the
flames rise to a height of 10 feet the fire is considered severe.

Only a small proportion of the mature pine has been damaged, since
the bark of both the Shortleaf and the Loblolly Pine possesses excel-
lent resisting power. On some badly burned areas examined all
young growth below about 20 feet in height has been completely
destroyed. Yet, although all the mature pine and the high poles had
been very severel} T scorched and charred, often to a height of 40 feet
from the ground, the}' were apparently perfectly sound and healthy,
nor had their growth been appreciably checked.

In marry localities, however, the mature pine has been cut into, 3 or
4 feet from the ground, to determine whether the wood splits easily
and hence is suitable for the making of shingles. A notch about a
foot square and 6 inches deep is chopped out, and if the wood is found
to be unsuitable the tree is left standing. From this wound the pitch
flows freely, hardening in irregular masses on the trunk, and thus
offering the best of fuel for the next fire. As a rule, fire will burn in
such a tree for some time, often eating a large hole halfway or more
through the trunk and weakening it to such an extent that it succumbs
to the first hard wind. A large part of the " down " timber on the
tract has been thrown in this way. Where litter and dry branches
collect around the foot of a tree the danger is increased.

The mature oaks, especially White and Post Oak, are much more
sensitive to tire than the mature pines, and are often killed simply by
a severe scald. The same is true of Hickory and Sweet Gum. But
as these hardwoods growing on pine lands are of but little commercial
value, no great loss is caused by their death.

In the case of young growth, fire is very disastrous. When fire
reaches the top of a young pine the tree is, with rare exceptions,
killed. An ordinary ground fire, therefore, is pretty sure to kill all
pine under 6 feet in height and 5 or 6 years old. Seedling growth of
all kinds is consumed down to the roots. But the young hardwoods,
and to a large extent both Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine, have the power
of sending up sprouts after fire. These sprouts come up from the
roots just below the surface, and if not interfered with there is every
reason to believe that they will grow into timber trees. No evidence
is at hand to show just how many times a young pine may be killed

10 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

back by fire and still be able to sprout, but it may be safely assumed
that it can do so after two or three such setbacks. Both Loblolly
and Shortleaf can produce these shoots up to the age of 15 or 20
years.

These fires, occurring as they do every three or four years, have
had a disastrous effect on the character of the forest. The older trees,
both pine and hardwood, continue to live for a number of years at
least, but reproduction is checked. Not that no young growth what-
ever succeeds; almost any cut-over area which has been swept by
repeated fires proves the contrary. Man]- pine and hardwood seed-
lings will be found growing up in spite of the fires, favored by chance
or some local condition. But such young growth is meager and very
inferior to what would be obtained if fires were kept out. Areas cut
perhaps twenty years ago, and visited by frequent fires since, are gen-
erally covered with open groups of hardwood saplings, and in these
groups, as well as scattered about through the whole area, is a sprink-
ling of young pines, which at times form open and scraggy groups by
themselves. Such a sparse, open, and irregular growth is bound to be
of very little commercial value. The saplings will grow up into badly
formed trees with many low branches, and the timber produced will
be knotty and inferior.

On the other hand, in localities which have been exempt from fire
large, dense groups of young pine and hardwood have sprung up.
Reproduction of this kind ma} 7 be seen on limited areas in several parts
of the tract. If fire were excluded, it is perfectly reasonable to
expect that this condition would obtain generally, and that such groups
would gradually spread until they had occupied most of the cut-over
area. This young growth would produce tall, straight trees, free from
branches, and containing the most valuable kind of timber. Even
with ample protection against fire, the whole cut-over area would of
course never grow up to a dense, even-aged growth of pine so long as
a large proportion of mature hardwood remained standing after the
lumbering; but the percentage of pine in the young growth would be
largely increased, and the commercial value of the future forest would
be much higher.

Apart from the damage done by fire to the young growth, the forest
as a whole suffers very severely from the complete destruction of the
humus or leaf mold. It is a noticeable fact that the soil throughout the
tract is covered by so thin and scattered a layer of leaves and needles
as to be almost entirely bare. Fire consumes the leaf litter completely
every time it passes over the ground, and in so doing destroys the best
fertilizer and protector of the forest soil, leaving it exposed to the
deteriorating action of sun, wind, and rain. As a consequence, the
rate of tree growth suffers.

By far the largest number of fires are started intentionally by
people owning farms or small bodies of timber surrounded by or bor-

fire: its influence upon the forest crop. 11

dering on the company's land. They are set in order to burn away the
underbrush and open the woods for hunting and hog ranging. Thirty
or forty years ago the whole forest was burned over regularly each
year in order to improve the grazing, but this custom has been but
little followed of late. A few of the tires are caused by the careless-
ness of loggers or campers.

The effect of fire on this forest may be summed up as follows:

(1) The young growth of all species, but especially that of pine, is
very seriously damaged or totally destroyed.

(2) Mature and middle-aged trees are damaged to some extent.

(3) The soil is constantly impoverished through the destruction of
the leaf litter.

If the forest is to be managed with a view to future crops, it is
necessary to obtain young growth which will develop into a first-class
stand of timber. This is impossible unless fire is kept out. A partial
protection is worse than none, for if the forest be guarded for five or
six years and then burned over, the tire feeds on the accumulated
litter, and the damage done is much greater than if light fires occurred
each year. Therefore, if protection is attempted it should be thorough.

The diagram herewith (fig. 1) is exceedingly significant. It illus-
trates the occurrence of pine according to diameter classes, and it
reveals a peculiar irregularity in the number of trees in these classes.
This irregularity is in all probability due to the damaging effects of
forest fires in past years. The diagram shows the average number of
trees per acre of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine, separately and combined,
of diameters from 2 to 40 inches. It will be seen that the three curves
for diameters from 40 to 22 inches are quite regular, the number of
trees per acre increasing steadily as the diameter decreases. At 22
inches, however, a decided break occurs, and from this point down to
14, 15, and 16 inches the same increase in the number of trees per acre
does not take place. From these points down to 2 inches the increase
again becomes very regular.

Now it is apparent that if no breaks occurred in the curves at the
22-inch point, the lines would have continued on as indicated by the
short broken lines of the diagram, and the number of trees per acre of
smaller diameter would have been much larger. In other words, the
number of trees in the smaller diameter classes at the present time is
insufficient to maintain the present stand of mature trees.

Loblolly Pine, when '22 inches in diameter, is about 100 years old.
The curves show that the proportion of younger trees has been
reduced bv some disturbing: influence. Such an influence is tire—
not a great fire, but repeated fires of ordinary severity, such as the
forest now suffers from. As the region was slowly entered by settlers
these fires would begin. The trees which are now one hundred years
old had by that time reached such a development that they were not
affected; the injury was then, as' now. chiefly to the young growth.

12 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR VINE BLUFF, ARK.

4.4

8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

DIAMETER BREAST HIGH- INCHES.
Fig. 1.— Diagram showing the number of trees per acre for Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine and for the

two species combined, on a diameter breasthigh.

GRAZING.

13

How old the trees must h;ive been to escape damage would depend
chiefly on the intensity of the tires. It is probable that the first ones
were the most severe, from the accumulation of fuel which they would
find. On the whole, one would conjecture from the condition of the
forest that they began about seventy-five years ago.

It was in 1819 that Arkansas, acquired by the United States as a part
of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, received a separate Territorial
organization, and in 1837 that it was admitted as a State. The settle-

4 8/2/6 20 24 28 32 36 40

OUTSIDE DIAMETER BREAST HIGH.

Fig. 2.— Diagram showing the relation between diameter on the stump aud diameter breasthigh for

Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine.

meut of the country took place, therefore, at the time when the con-
dition of the forest leads us to infer that tires began.

GRAZING.

Cattle are not ranged extensively on the Sawj r er & Austin tract and
they do practically no damage to the forest. Of sheep grazing there
is none.

Hogs are numerous and hog ranging is common. This should be
encouraged, since the hogs cat the acorns and thus work against the

14 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

reproduction of the oak, while the damage they do to pine seedlings is
trifling. They also tear up and loosen the soil, thus preparing it well
for the germination of pine seed.

THE FOREST.

Although the forests of this locality are commonly known as "pine
woods," pine being the principal merchantable species, a pure growth
of pine very seldom occurs. Except over limited areas the pine is
always in mixture with the hardwoods. On the bottom lands along the
j streams, pure hardwood forests occur. Several distinct types of forest
growth may therefore be observed, and are distinguished by the lum-
bermen. These types are:

1. Pine ridge.

2. Fine flat.

3. Hardwood bottom.

Since no topographical maps of the tract were available, and since
the occurrence of these types is dependent mainly upon differences in
elevation and slope, it is impossible to estimate accurately the area
occupied by each. From the valuation surveys, however, a rough
idea of their extent was obtained, and the per cent of the total forest
area each occupies is assumed to be about as follows:

Per cent.

Pine ridge 65

Pine flat 20

Hardwood bottom 15

As each of these types has a tree growth in many ways peculiar to
itself, the forest will be described silviculturally under these three
headings. From the standpoint of the lumberman, however, the first
two types may be thrown together under the general heading "Pine
lands."" since from this point of view there is very little to distinguish
them. In the first place, the forests of the pine lands will be briefly
described, from the standpoint of their merchantable product.

THE MERCHANTABLE FOREST.
PINE LANDS.

Occupying about 85 per cent of the total area, the pine lands form,
and will continue to form, the principal source of income. Although
the lands of the hardwood-bottom type contain much valuable timber,
they cover too small an area to compete in commercial value with the
pine lands.

The stand on the pine lands is shown by the table following, which
gives the average number of trees, the percentage in mixture, and the
average diameter at breastheight (4£ feet) a of the most important

& All the tables contained in this report are based on diameter measurements made
at breastheight, or 4£ feet from the ground. To reduce approximately diameter
breasthigh to diameter on the stump, add 2 inches to the former. The exact rela-
tion between these two diameters is shown in fig. 2.

THE MERCHANTABLE FOREST.

15

species 12 inches and over in diameter. It may be noted here that
the lumberman makes no distinction between Loblolly and Shortleaf
Pine, nor is any distinction made in the trade, both being- sold under
the name of "Yellow Pine." In the woods, however, the lumbermen
distinguish two kinds of timber— Heart Pine and Bull Pine. The lat-
ter is called also Second Growth Pine. These terms apply roughly
to the two different species, the Heart to the Shortleaf and the Bull

v, ,20 °

^ 1000

s

|

^ 800

12

14

16

16

20

34

36

38

40

22 24 26 28 30 32
DIAMETER BREAST HI6H - INCHES.

Fig. 3.— Diagram showing the merchantable eontentsin board feet for Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine on
i lie i.usis of diameter breastbigb. (Contents by Doyle's Rule.

to the Loblolly, because by "Heart" Pine is understood a pine whose
wood is mostly heart, with very little sap; and by Bull Pine, a pine
with a large amount of sapwood; and as a rule the Loblolly contains a
greater percentage of sapwood than the Shortleaf. •"Heart" Pine i>
supposed to have a thin bark and " Bull " Pine a thick bark. This rule,
however, was found to be very uncertain, and can never be relied upon
as a botanical distinction between the Loblolly and the Shortleaf.

16 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

Table No. 1.— Average number of trees per acre— percentage in mixture and average
diameter of all trees 12 inches and over in diameter breasthigh.

PINE LANDS.
[Average of 1,745 acres.]

Shortleaf Pine

Loblolly Pine

White Oak

Post Oak

Gum

Spanish Oak

Black Oak

Hickory

Other species

All species

All species except pine.

Pine

Average
number
of trees

Percent-
age of
each

Average

diameter

breast-

per acre.

species.

high.

Inches.

9.91

35.66

18.9

5.26

18.93

20.4

3.79

13.64

20.5

3.28

11.80

16.5

2.09

7.52

16.3

1.25

4.50

18.0

.69

2.48

18.6

.75

2.70

15.1

.77

2.77

14.5

27. 79

100.00

18.7

12. 62

45.41

17.7

15. 17

54.59

19.4

From this it is seen that pine forms but a trifle over 50 per cent of
the total stand 12 inches and over in diameter, and that the quantity
of Shortleaf Pine is nearly twice that of Loblolly. After pine, the
most common trees are White Oak, Post Oak, and Gum, the Spanish
and Black Oak and the Hickory being but sparsely represented.

The occurrence of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine by diameters from
2 to 36 inches will be found in the following table:

Table No. 2.— Average number of trees per acre of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine and of
the two species combined, for diameters fram 2 to 36 inches.

Diameter

(inches).

Shortleaf.

Loblolly.

Shortleaf

and
Loblolly.

Diameter

(inches).

Shortleaf.

Loblolly.

Shortleaf

and
Loblolly.

2

10.55

3.90

14.45

20

0.53

0.28

0.81

3

9.87

3.53

13.40

21

.59

.31

.90

4

7.60

2.62

10. 22

22

.53

.27

.80

5

5.50

1.72

7. 22

23

.42

.23

.65

6

4.74

1.51

6.25

24

.33

.21

.54

7

3.59

.99

4.58

25

.29

.19

.48

8

2.83

.87

3.70

26

.24

.16

.40

9

2.39

.61

3.00

27

.18

.15

.33

10

1.66

.71

2.37

28

.13

.12

.25

11

1.40

.60

2.00

29

.08

.10

.18

12

1.22

.55

1.77

30

.07

.11

.18

13

1.04

.42

1.46

31

.03

.03

.06

14

.92

.41

1.33

32

.03

.04

.07

15

.79

.36

1.15

33

.01

.02

.03

16

.72

.35

1.07

34

.01

.02

.03

17

.62

.35 .

.97

35

.002

.01

.012

18

.59

.33

.92

36

.007

.01

.017

19

.58

.30

.88

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

31

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THE MERCHANTABLE FOREST.

17

The number of trees per acre below 22 inches in diameter is dispro-
portionately small, as was shown by figure 1, which is a graphic rep-
resentation of this table. The trees now approaching- merchantable
size are not sufficient in number to maintain the present proportion of
mature timber. This has a serious influence on future yields, since it
lengthens considerably the time required for the production of a sec-
ond crop equal to the present one, and it shows, moreover, that the
land is capable of producing a much larger stand of timber than it is
now maturing.

The following table gives the average contents of standing pine in
board feet, by Doyle's Rule, on a basis of diameter at breastheight,
and holds good for both Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine. Figure 3 is a
graphic representation of this table.

Table No. 3. — Contents of pine, in board feet, according to diameter breasthigh.

[By Doyle's Rule.]

Diameter
breast-
high.

Merchant-
able con-
tents.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Merchant-
able con-
tents.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Merchant-
able con-
tents.

Inches.

Board feet.

Inches.

Board feet.

Inches.

Boardfeet.

15

120

24

780

33

1,800

16

180

25

880

34

1,930

17

240

26

980

35

2,060

18

300

27

1,080

36

2,200

19

370

28

1,190

37

2,340

20

440

29

1,300

38

2,490

21

520

30

1,420

39

2,630

22

600

31

1,550

40

2. 780

23

690

32

1,680

STAND OF MERCHANTABLE PINE.

The following table shows the average stand per acre in board feet
of merchantable pine on the pine lands, cutting to various diameters:

Table No. 4. — Average stand of merchantable pine />er acre, in board feet, cutting to
diameter limits of 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 inches, breasthigh.

Cutting

limit.

diameter

breasthigh.

Average
merchant-
able staml

per acre.'

Inches.

Boardfeet.

12

6,067

14

5,845

16

5, 597

18

r.,130

20

l.:>61

22019— No. 32—02 2

18 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK,

The heaviest stand of pine per acre observed upon the tract lies
near the southern boundary of section 27. township 5 south, range 11
west. The table below shows its composition and amount.

Table No. 5. — Number of trees and merchantable contents, in board feet, for Shortleaf and
LobloUti Pin- on 1 acre in section 27, Tovmship 5 south, Range 11 v:est, for the diameter
limits of 2, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 inches, breasthigh.

Diameter
limit.

Number of trees over
diameter limit.

Merchantable contents.

Total mer-
chantable
contents.

breasthigh.

Shortleaf.

Loblolly.

Shortleaf.

Loblolly.

Inches.
2

12
14
16
18
20

4
1
1
1

1

97
56
53
49
40
29

Board hit.

Board feet.

Board feet.

240
240
240
240

28, 810
28,600
28, 180
26,200
22, 340

29,050
28, 840
28, 420
26,440
22,340

In the eastern part of the tract, townships 5 south, 11 west, and 5
south, 12 west, are found the heaviest stands, the western and north-
ern portions being more lightly timbered. The heaviest stand over
any considerable area is found, however, in the northwestern part of
the tract — sections 3 and 4 of township 3 south, 14 west. In these sec-
tions the average stand per acre is 9,900 board feet.

THE FOREST FROM A SILVICTJLTURAL STANDPOINT.

PINE RIDGE.

The pine ridge type occurs on all the gently rolling or hilly portions
of the tract. It includes not only the forest on the ridges themselves,
but also those on the slopes and in the hollows. The so-called ' ' ridges "
are merely slight elevations with broad and nearly level tops, whose
sides slope away gently at a gradient of 10 to 15 degrees. The differ-
ence in level between the hollows and tops seldom exceeds 75 or 100
feet.

Throughout this type the soils are deep, dry, and rather compact
loamy sands, usually with a slight admixture of clay and with an
occasional bed of gravel or pebble. Owing to frequent fires the humus
is almost entirely absent, and the ground cover consists of a thin and
scattered layer of needles and leaves, together with grass, weeds, and
ferns. On the most open places and in irregular patches throughout
the forest are more or less dense growths of Huckleberry, Laurel,
Swamp Bay, and briers.

THE FOREST FROM A SILVIOULTURAL STANDPOINT.

19

The following table shows the composition of the forest:

Table No. 6. — Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and average
diameters fcr the most important species, for trees 12 inches and over in diameter.

PINE RIDGE.

[Average of 1,516 acres.]

Name of species.

Shortleaf Pine

Loblolly Pine

White Oak

Post Oak

Gum

Spanish Oak

Black Oak

Hickory

Other species

All species

All species except pine.

Pine

Average
number
of trees
per acre.

Percent-
age of
each

species.

Average
diameter,
breast-
high.

10.52

38.39

Inches.
18.9

4.43

16.17

20.5

3.56

12.99

20.8

3.31

12. 08

16.5

2.01

7.34

16.5

1.27

4.64

18.1

.70

2. 55

18.9

.77

2.81

15.1

.83

3.03

14.5

27. 40

100.00

18.7

12. 45

45. 44

17.8

14.95

54.56

19.4

Pine forms a little more than 50 per cent of the total stand, and
Shortleaf is more than twice as abundant as Loblolly.

In this type of forest the pines, both Shortleaf and Loblolly, occur
either in very small groups or scattered about by single trees; more
commonly the latter. They tower high above the crowns of the hard-
woods, forming a kind of second story over the oaks, gums, hickories,
etc., which occur by single trees, quite evenly distributed. Under the
old hardwoods is a growth of hardwood saplings and poles, intermixed
with Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine. This undergrowth is found both in
large and small groups and scattered openly and irregularly, while
over large areas it is entirely absent, leaving the ground clear and bare
under the mature trees. Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine seedlings are
exceedingly scarce in this type of forest, owing principally to the
frequent ground fires, and also to the fact that they will not flourish
under too great a shade from the hardwoods.

When a forest is lumbered for all merchantable pine down to 14
inches in diameter at the stump very few hardwoods are cut, and the
hardwood forest remains practically intact upon the lumbered area.
The forest then consists Of a few mature pines which were too unsound
to cut, the original stand of young and middle-aged pine under L4 inches
in diameter, and an open growth of mature and middle-aged hardwoods.
Scattered groups of hardwood saplings mixed with pine form the
undergrowth, generally much injured by the logging. The removal
of the mature pine has admitted light to the ground and fitted it for
the germination of seed, while the seed-bearing capacity of the remain-
ing trees is increased by the addition of light and room.

20 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

The object in .such a forest should be to obtain a constantly increas-
ing stand of pine and a decreasing stand of hardwoods, as the pine is
the most valuable species which this locality can produce. An increase
in the stand of pine can be brought about in two ways— by the removal
of a large part of the hardwoods and by the exclusion of forest fires.
The quality of the young growth, and consequently of the mature
forest, will depend largely upon the presence or absence of tires.
Even more effective would be the removal of the hardwoods. Unfor-
tunately, however, the quality of the stand and the condition of the
market will not permit of this being done at present except at a finan-
cial loss, nor is there much reason to suppose that conditions will
change to any great extent in the immediate future. Every chance,
however, should be taken to cut and remove all hardwoods which show
a possibility of affording even a very slight profit. It should be borne
in mind that every oak or other hardwood cut tends to increase the
number of pine trees in the future stand.

As will be seen later on. Loblolly grows much more rapidly than
Shortleaf, reaching a diameter of 12 inches in forty -four years, whereas
the Shortleaf requires over sixty years. Although the "Heart" Pine,
or Shortleaf, commands a slightly higher price than the " Bull" Pine,
or Loblolly, the difference is only just about enough to pay for sorting-
it out. The Loblollv is therefore by far the more valuable tree of the
two. and should be favored in every possible way. The more there is
of it in the reproduction the better will it be for the future forest,
because the crop will become merchantable in a much shorter time,
and consequently the returns will be higher.

Unfortunately, the number of Loblolly seed trees is comparatively
small on the pine ridges, and an increase in the percentage of Loblolly
can be obtained only by letting as m:my as possible of these trees
stand. In practice it will be possible to spare a tree above merchant-
able diameter here and there, and this should by all means be done,
for every Loblolly left standing will very appreciably help along the
representation of this species in the new growth. The number of
Shortleaf Pine below 12 inches in diameter left after the cutting will
be nearly sufficient to produce all the seed necessary for a reproduc-
tion of this species, but in some localities it will be advisable also to
save a few above this 12-inch limit.

To increase the pine stand by protection against fire is entirely
practicable, and will produce valuable results. It has been shown
that, in the young growth, hardwoods have a decided advantage over
pine where the ground is swept by repeated fires, and it is beyond
doubt that if fire be kept out the percentage of pine in the young
growth will be largely increased.

During the first five or six years after lumbering, if fire is kept out,
the reproduction will usually appear to be composed almost entirely

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1.— Loblolly Poles under mature Loblolly on a Pine Flat.

Fiq 2.— Hardwood Undergrowth under mature Pine on a Pine Flat.

THE FOREST FROM A SILVICULTURAL STANDPOINT.

21

of hardwoods; a few years later, however, a vigorous growth of young
pine will be seen pushing up, and from this time on both the Shortleaf
and the Loblolly will overtop the hardwoods and develop rapidly to
maturity. If left to nature and protected from tire, pine is bound to
be the dominant species. The locality is natural pine land, and in the
past the percentage of this species was probably much greater than it
is at present.

Even if such a thing were possible, it should, however, never be
the object of management to exterminate the hardwoods. When
present to a limited extent they serve a very useful purpose by forc-
ing the young pine to grow up straight and free from branches, and
they are also exceedingly valuable for the protection they afford the
soil. As a pure pine forest approaches maturity it thins out very
rapidly and the soil tends to deteriorate, as the crowns of the pine
afford insufficient shelter against the action of sun, wind, and rain.
If a growth of hardwoods is present under the pine the soil is much
benefited, both from the shade afforded and from the humus which will
gradually collect. Hardwoods, then, are a secondary but very useful
factor in the forest growth. The ideal condition is that they should
not be present in such numbers as to interfere with the best develop-
ment of the pine, but should be sufficiently represented to afford pro-
tection to the soil and force the pine to produce clear, straight boles.
In other words, they should serve as a nurse for the pine in youth
and should form a second story under it as the forest grows older.

If care is taken to protect the tract from fire there is every reason
to expect that after lumbering in a pine ridge forest an excellent
reproduction of pine will develop, and that this reproduction will, in
years to come, produce a stand of mature timber superior to that of
the present day.

The stand of merchantable pine on the pine ridge type is shown
below.

Table No. 7.— Average stand of merchantable pirn /» r acre on the pine ridge type, for
Shortleaf and Loblolly, and the two species combined, for trees over 12 inches in diameter
breasthigh.

[Average of 1,516 acres.]

Species.

Merchant-
able con-
tents.

Board feet.

3,819
2,126

5,945

22 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

PINE FLAT.

On the low. almost perfectly flat lands the forest growth is in many
respects very similar to that of the pine ridge type. The soils are of
the same general character, but contain a larger amount of clay and
are somewhat moister. Over considerable areas on these flats, and
especially in the open spaces, there is a dense and often quite high
growth of grass, and the usual ground cover of leaves, weeds, ferns,
and huckleberries is common throughout. As on the ridges, the
humus layer is exceedingly thin or entirely absent. The representa-
tion of the various species is shown by the following table:

Table No. 8. — Average number of free.-' per acre, percentage in mixture, and average
diamett rs for the most important species, for trees 12 inches and over in diameter
breasthigh.

PINE FLAT.
[Average of 229 acres.]

Species.

Average
number
of trees
per acre.

Percent-
age of
each

specie-.

Average
diameter
breast-
high.

Lobloll v Pine

Shortleaf Pine

White Oak

10.35

6.21

5.68

3.04

2. 68

1.08

. 65

.63

.20

33. 91
20. 35
18. 61
9. 96
B.78
3.54
2. 13

2. 06

. 66

Indus.
19.9
18.7
18.9

16. 4
15.0

17. s
16.0
14.7
13. 6

Post Oak

Gum

Spanish Oak

Black Oak

Hickory

Other species

All species

30. 52
13.96

100. 00
45. 74

is. 4
17.1

All species except pine

Pine

16.56

54. 26

19.5

It is seen from this table that the Loblolly Pine is the most common
tree on the pine flats. Where the conditions are well suited to it it is
decidedly the dominant species of this type. Although Shortleaf Pine
is also well represented, it is not so much at home as on the ridges;
and the fresher the soil the more Shortleaf Pine gives way to the
Loblolly. White Oak. Post Oak. and Gum are fairly numerous,
while Hickory is very scarce. Of special interest is the proportion of
pine to the hardwoods. In constitutes but little more than half the
forest.

The general appearance of a pine flat forest is similar to that of the
ridges, yet it difl'ers in several particulars. As on the ridges, the
pines stand high above the crowns of the hardwoods, the latter form-
ing, as before, a kind of underwood; but instead of occurring by single
trees or in small groups, the pines of the flats have a decided tendency
to grow in large groups, occupying at times a quarter of an acre or

THE FOREST FROM A SILVICULTURAL STANDPOINT.

23

more. Scattered through these groups by single trees, or forming
open groups and clumps by themselves, are oaks, gums, and other
hardwoods, while both pine and hardwood reproduction is fairly
abundant throughout. This reproduction is generally in the form of
thickets from five to ten years of age, which prefer as a rule the more
open spaces. While the reproduction of the pine ridges is usually a
mixture of pine and hardwoods, on the flats the young growth occurs
to a large extent in pure groups; that is, the thickets are either com-
posed entirely of young pine or entirely of hardwoods.

The future of this type of forest, after lumbering and the removal of
all merchantable pine above 12 inches in diameter, will be very similar
to that of the pine ridge type, with the exception that the pine repro-
duction will not be hindered to such an extent by the hardwoods, as
the latter are less numerous in the reproduction of the flats. If a few
Loblollies over 12 inches in diameter are left standing on each acre as
seed trees, the reproduction of the pine will be sufficiently cared for,
and after cutting has admitted the light, seedlings of pine and hard-
woods will rapidly develop. This reproduction, on account of slight
variations in the nature of the soil and the characteristic grouping of
the old trees, will tend to form itself into groups of pine and groups
of hardwood, the latter composed almost entirely of oak.

Here again the all-important question is that of lire. What the
future forest will be depends to a great extent upon the protection
afforded. In this case, as on the ridge land, in spite of lumbering,
fire, and the struggle with hardwoods, pine is bound to be the ruling-
species in the end, for the locality is natural pine land. It is simply
a choice between fire protection, with a valuable future stand of pine,
and no protection, with an inferior stand.

From the 229 valuation surveys taken on pine flats the average
stand of merchantable pine per acre was found to be as follows:

Table No. 9. — Average stand of merchantable pine per acre on (he pine flat type, for Short-
leaf and Loblolly Pine and the two species combined, for trees over 1J inches in diameter
breasthigh.

Species.

Merchant-
able con-
tents.

Board feet.

Loblolly Pine MM

Short lea" 1 'i ne 2, 172

Total 6, 646

HARDWOOD BOTTOM.

Lying in narrow belts on either side of the creeks and larger
streams are the hardwood bottoms. They vary in width from a quar-
ter of a mile along the smaller water courses to over 2 miles along

24 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

Saline River, and occupy the lowest levels on the tract. At any con-
siderable rise in the streams they are flooded, and during the rainy
season (in late winter and spring) they often remain under several feet
of water for weeks at a time. Slight differences in level occur
throughout these bottoms, and in the depressions or sloughs standing
water is always present. (PI. VI, fig. 1.)

The soil is very deep, rich sandy loam. Its condition varies greatly
with the season, because during a part of the year it is subjected to
constant inundations, and then again is left dry and exposed to the
action of sun and wind. In the fall the surface of the soil is exceed-
ingly hard and '•'•cakv.' , Owing to frequent inundation, the leaf mold
is washed away and the soil left bare. A peculiarity of these bottom
lands is the dense growth of cane {Arutufinnrla tecta), which forms
by far the greater part of the ground cover. This cane varies in
height from 2 to 10 feet, and often grows so densely that it is hard
to walk through. Grass and weeds are present to some extent.

The forest is of an entirely different character* from that of the pine
ridge and pine flat types. It is composed almost entirely of broadleaf
species, and the trees show a very different habit of growth from the
hardwoods of the pine lands. The locality is distinctly hardwood
land, as ridges and flats are pine lands. From the following table the
composition of the forest is evident:

Table No. 10. — Average number of trees per acre, percentage in mixture, and average
diameters for the most important species, for trees 12 inches and over in diameter
breasthigh.

HARDWOOD BOTTOM.
[Average of 155 acres.]

Species.

Average
number
of trees

per acre.

Percent-
age of
each
species.

Average
diameter
breast-
high.

Gum

7.59

5.81

4.45

3.47

2.05

1.30

.71

.62

.55

.22

1.50

26.86

. 20.55

15.72

12.27

7.25

4.60

2.52

2.19

1.95

.78

5.31

Inches.
20.9
18.9
24.6
20.7
14.6
18.2
19.5
17.7
18.4
16.1
18.4

Hickorv

Cow Oak

White Oak

Hollv

Ash

Loblollv Pine

Basswood

Shortleaf Pine

Post Oak

Other species

28. 27
27.01

100.00
95. 53

19.9
20.0

All species except pine

The gums, including both Sweet Gum and Black Gum, comprise
about a fourth of the total stand, while the hickories (principally
Shagbarks, with a very few Pignuts and Bitternuts) are next in
number. Cow Oak, White Oak, and Holly are all fairly well repre-

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

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O

O
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o

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O
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Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

-•<r &2£&&&&&MMSuhI^^

Fig. 1.— A Slough in the Hardwood Bottoms. Cow Oak and Willow Oak.

Fig. 2.— A Hardwood Bottom.

THE FOREST FROM A SILVICULTURAL STANDPOINT. 25

sented. In a typical hardwood bottom no pine is present, but along
the borders of this type, where the soil is not quite so moist, a few
pines occasionally creep in. This forest of broadleaf species is
remarkable for its luxuriant growth and large timber.

Although the gums and hickories are the most important in point
of numbers, the Cow Oaks and White Oaks will probably prove the
most important commercially. The forest as a whole has the appear-
ance of a nearly even-aged mature stand. The large, spreading crowns
of the oaks slightly overtop those of the other species. Rising to
nearly the same height are the gums, hickories, and ashes; and all
these species are very evenly distributed over the entire bottom.
Basswood is somewhat smaller in size, while the Holly and Hornbeam
form a kind of scattering underwood to the main stand. The forest
as a whole is dense, and but little light penetrates through the heavy
crowns.

The most notable feature of this type of forest is the general absence
of young growth. With the exception of scattering specimens of
Sweet Gum, Holly, and Hornbeam saplings, reproduction of any
description is lacking. The following facts account for such a state
of things:

(1) Throughout a large part of the forest the ground is kept too
dark for reproduction of any but the most tolerant species.

(2) Wherever sufficient light occurs for the germination of seed-
lings, these rarely succeed, because —

(<i) The very dense growth of cane makes it almost impossible for a
seedling to develop; and

{b) In case a seedling struggles on in spite of the cane, it rarely sur-
vives the frequent and severe floods which are sure to occur each year.

It is difficult to foretell just what the result of lumbering in the
hardwood bottoms will be. In all probability no natural reproduction
of the desired species can be hoped for, because of the dense cane and
grass and the inundations. As soon as light is admitted by the cut-
tings the growth of cane and grass will be greatly stimulated. No
figures can be given in this report in regard to the rate of growth of
the hardwoods, as circumstances were such that it was deemed best to
eontine such work to the pines. If the diameter limit is kept fairly
high in cutting these hardwoods (say at 20 inches), there is every reason
to believe that a good second crop will be ready for the axe when the
pine lands are cut over the second time. The chances of a sustained
yield in future years are, however, doubtful.

The hardwood bottoms are not subject to forest tires, on account of
the moistness of the ground and the sentiment of the local popula-
tion. The dense growth of cane furnishes a most excellent supply of
fodder for cattle, and every winter the bottoms are full of stock from
the neighboring villages. In case a tire breaks out an alarm is soon
given and it is quickly extinguished.

26 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

Here is a very pretty example of how interest affects the tire ques-
tion. In the bottom lands the people are directly interested in pro-
tecting- the grazing, and consequently the sentiment is strong against
allowing tires to run in them. On the other hand, they have no par-
ticle of interest in future timber supplies or understanding of the
damage which tire causes to the forest. As a consequence, there is
absolutely no sentiment against tire in pine lands.

SILVICULTURAL, NOTES.

BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SPECIES. a

Shortleaf Pine {Pinus echinat a Mill. ).

Situation. — The Shortleaf Pine occurs most extensively on the rel-
atively higher, very gently rolling pine ridge land. On the flats of
the lower levels it generally gives way to the Loblolly. It reaches its
best development on the side slopes rather than on the flat tops or in
the bottoms, probably on account of the better drainage.

Soil. — A fairly light, dry sandy loam is the soil upon which this
species grows to best advantage. On the low levels and in the slight
depressions where the soil is moist, or even fresh, it can not compete
with the Loblolly. Sometimes a little dip with a difference in level of
only a few feet will bring about a change of species. The Shortleaf
Pine is not exacting in regard to the mineral composition of the soil,
and can flourish upon comparatively poor lands. Its chief requirement
is that the soil be deep, porous, and well drained.

Tolerance and reproduction. —Direct sunlight with no shade what-
ever is the condition of light best suited to this species throughout its
whole life. During extreme youth, however, it is capable of living
under an open or very broken canopy of hardwood foliage.

Shortleaf Pine begins to produce seed when 25 or 30 years old, and
occasional cone-bearing specimens but 15 or 20 years of age were met
with. After the thirtieth year, at any rate, an abundant supply of
seed is produced every two or three years, and under favorable condi-
tions the reproduction of this species is marvelous.

Upon old, abandoned fields surrounded by or situated near to seed-
bearing pines ideal conditions are met with. Such localities furnish
the two essentials for excellent reproduction — an abundance of light
and protection against tire. Seeds blow in from the neighboring trees,
and at first a scattering growth of seedlings appears. This gradually
becomes more closed and regular, until after eight or ten years a very
dense thicket is found, which rapidly develops into a young pole

"These silvicultural descriptions apply simply to the particular locality for which
the working plan was made, and are not to be regarded as holding good for any
species over its whole range of distribution.

SILVICULTURAL NOTES. 27

forest. By a natural process of pruning, the lower branches die and
fall off, while the weaker trees are suppressed in the struggle for
existence. Such reproduction can be seen on almost any old field, and
if protected from fire it will produce a heavy and valuable stand of
mature timber.

In this connection the areas known as "hurricane breaks" are of
interest. Between thirty and forty years ago a tornado completely
destroyed the forest in a narrow strip about half a mile wide and ± or 5
miles long. This entire area is now grown up with a pole forest of
Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine, in which hardwoods occur but rarely.
The pine seed evidently blew in from the surrounding forest.

With open ground and plenty of light there is, then, no difficulty in
obtaining an excellent reproduction of Shortleaf Pine. The difficulty
occurs when reproduction is required under a certain amount of shade
from both broadleaf and coniferous trees, upon ground where the young
pine must fight for existence with a growth of oak, gum, hickory, and
other hardwoods, and struggle along against the ravages of repeated
fires. After the first eight or ten years, the period during which this
species is capable of existing under the broken shade of broadleaf
reproduction, the chances are that, unless the plant has succeeded in
forcing its leading shoot up through the broadleaf growth surround-
ing it, it will give up the struggle and yield the ground to the hard-
woods. Fortunately a large percentage of the pine seedlings usually
succeed in outgrowing and overtopping the hardwoods at this impor-
tant point, and from then on develop rapidly to maturity. Reproduc-
tion is also difficult on ground covered by a dense growth of grass,
although a light growth seems to have no great influence.

If a good reproduction of Shortleaf Pine is wished for, protection
against fire is absolutelv necessary.

After lumbering under present methods, with the simple addition
of a system of fire protection and the leaving of an occasional Short-
leaf Pine above the diameter limit to furnish seed for reproduction,
the new growth of this species should be excellent. It will appear at
first as scattering seedlings under the young growth of hardwoods,
and will slowly push up above the latter. As time goes on it will
gradually become more dense and tend to form itself into groups.
Groups will be formed because in some places the pine will have an
easier time of it against the hardwoods than in others. Consequently
there will be groups of hardwoods where these are too well established
to be replaced by pine, and groups of pine where the latter wins.

One point in connection with the reproduction of Shortleaf Pine can
not be too strongly emphasized. While there is no doubt that a young
growth much superior to that which will follow the usual method of
lumbering could be obtained if a Dumber of merchantable Shortleaf
Pine trees were left standing on each acre and a huge quantity of the

28 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

hardwoods were cut, it is a most fortunate circumstance that even
after ordinary lumbering the pine will eventually predominate, for
the simple reason that the locality is one naturally suited to it.

Only those silvicultural operations are allowable which are justified
by future returns. In this particular case there is no doubt that the
very slight expense caused by leaving an occasional seed tree and main-
taining a system of tire protection is well justified by the increase in
value which will result to the future stand. Anything beyond this
would involve ;i present expense without the certainty of an improve-
ment in the forest which would pay for it.

Occurrence. — In the present composition of the forest the Shortleaf
Pine occurs most frequently by single specimens, although found at
times in small groups. It is almost invariably associated with the
hardwoods, seldom forming pure stands. In the future forest the
occurrence of this species should be more and more by groups, and by
groups constantly increasing in size. Such will be the case if fire is
kept out.

Development. — Under ordinary forest conditions this species pro-
duces a long and straight cylindrical bole, having at times a clear
length of nearly 60 feet. The crown is irregular in shape, approach
ing the form of a truncated cone, and the stem has a tendency to fork
near the top of the crown. The height of merchantable trees varies
from 70 to 120 feet. Trees over 40 inches in diameter breasthigh are
very rarel} T met with.

The accompanying diagrams illustrate the growth of the Shortleaf
Pine. They are simply graphic presentations of the figures obtained
from the stem analyses.

Relation of diameter to height. — This curve shows the relation
between the diameter and the height growth of Shortleaf and Loblolly
Pine, since the two species exhibit no marked difference in this respect.
As can be seen from the curve, the height increases very rapidly with
diameters up to 5 or 6 inches. The rate then diminishes in a very
uniform manner until the largest diameters are reached. (See fig. 4.)

Relation of age to diameter. — The relation between age and diameter
breasthigh is here shown for both Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine.

The diameter of the Shortleaf increases very regularl} 7 for the first
hundred years, after which the rate of increase begins gradually to
fall off. For the first hundred years the average time required to
grow 1 inch in diameter is five and one-half years. It will be seen
from the curve that if 12 inches be taken as the cutting limit, Short
leaf Pine first becomes merchantable after sixty-two years. (See fig. 5.)

Relation of age to height. — The height growth for both Shortleaf
and Loblolly Pine is represented in this diagram. For Shortleaf the
height growth is exceedingly uniform and quite rapid for the first
twenty years, after which period the rate gradually diminishes. For

SILVICULTURAL NOTES.

29

GO 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0^

HE/6HT-FEET.

Fiu. 4.— Diagram showing the height growth of Bhortleaf and Loblolly Pine <>" t li* • basis "t" diameter

breasthigh.

30 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

the first one hundred years the yearly average growth in height is
0.83 foot, and for the first twenty years 1.5 feet, (See tig. 6.)

Relation of age to merchantable contents. — The curve here given

34 m
32 if
30 i
28 ;

4MjIr;:|E

Ifffl Tfln-rH

::

-fffniLiriJJ-xdxrr'li LI t-T4444-H-l4'H

n | | f | | | | | | 1 i 1 i i 1 1 i i i 1 i 1 i 1 | 1 ryTT
X-LJ. J ,4" 1 mTTTTl"

i x mnxiz inxt i i" Tunn: X '

|

26 \
24 -
22 -

"ilaitj-KtT

*

"ffffffll ffl

fc 16 ::

^ ffl

& ::

Ifffl

hi i1||||i|M1|||

ill

m
<5 -

- ■

6 ■■
4

**T ~J "IT" 1 T

1 1 '

hi -+-H~H H rfr""tT"

4ll|r|f::-4|||:::ii:::::±±t::it±:

f f ff ~~"~ftf """"IHTrT

2 i

4 1 4 1 1 1 T = = = = T = - = = = : "T = -t 1 Tp~ T i~

&

lIllnilllllrH

lllill 1 Hill

|__.rtt J. _.4 + £ft- -ft 1 ,

20

40

60

80

160 180 200 220 240

100 120 140
A6E — YEARS
Fig. 5.— Diagram showing the diameter growth of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine on the basis of age.

shows the volume growth in board feet for Shortleaf and Loblolly
Pine, the contents being calculated according to Doyle's Rule.

Between 80 and 140 years of age the Shortleaf Pine increases very
uniformly in merchantable contents, after which age the rate of

SILVICULTURAL NOTES.

31

increase begins to fall off. The merchantable contents of Shortleaf
Pine under 80 years of age is somewhat uncertain, as the diameters
become too small for accurate calculations. Between the ages of 60
and 100 years the average yearly increase in merchantable contents
amounts to 6.25 board feet, and between 60 and 200 years to 7.71
board feet. (See fig. 7.)

Relation between diameter, total height, merchantable length,* crown
length, and clear length* (See fig. 8.) — The principal point of inter-
est connected with this diagram is the rapid increase in the length of
merchantable timber obtained from trees of 15 to 24 or 25 inches in
diameter, and the small additional length obtained from trees of greater

'0 10 B0 30 40 50

Fig. 6.— Diagram showing the height growth of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine on the basis of age.

60 70 80 SO 100 110 ISO 130 140 150
AGE- YEARS

diameters. The merchantable length is greatest in proportion to the
total height when the tree has a diameter of 20 inches. In this case
a little more than one-half of the total height is merchantable.

By comparing the curves for clear length and for merchantable
length it will be seen that for trees below L9 inches in diameter the
merchantable length is less than the clear length, while above that
diameter the reverse is true. In other words, in trees over 1!> inches
in diameter breasthigh (21 inches on the stump) the logs are cut up
into the crowns, the distance to which the cut extends into the crown
increasing as the diameter of the tree increases.

Merchantable length is the total length « > l" merchantal>l<' liml >«-r; in other words,
the sum of the log lengths.

'"Clear length is the' distance from the ground to the point where the branches of
the crown begin.

32 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

1300

q" ' uu 20 40 60 80 100 '' 120 140 160 180 2U0 220 240

AGE — YEARS.
Fig. 7.— Diagram showing the merchantable contents in board feet of Shortleaf and Loblolly Pine on

the basis of age. (Contents by Doyle's Rule. )

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

31

I

r
o

CD

r
O

TJ

z
m

31

ro

'l

CO

I
o

3)

-I

r
rn
>

z
m

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VIII.

-*&:

*JW?

, , :<".*<: „J*- ,;• ■ -,}., h- & i> ■ ,,' •.••■: .■•" »'

Fig. 1.— Reproduction of Loblolly Pine in an Opening.

Fig. 2. --Hardwood Reproduction under Loblolly.

SILVICULTURAL NOTES.

33

Loblolly Pine (Pinus tseda Linn.).

Situation. — Loblolly Pine is found at its best on the pine flats. It
also occurs on the ridges, but seldom reaches its full development
there.

Soil. — Soils which are favorable to the Shortleaf Pine are also most
suitable to the Loblolly, with the one exception that the latter requires

120

14

16

18

20 22 24 26 28 30 32
DIAMETER BREAST HIGH- INCHES

34 36

Fig. 8.— Diagram showing the relation between the total height, merchantable length, crown length,
and clear rengtb for Shortleaf Pine on thu basis uf diameter breasthigh.

a little more moisture. The Loblolly prefers a fresh soil, and it can

flourish even in a fairly moist one. Occasional specimens are found
on the higher levels of the bottom lauds. Any prolonged exposure to
standing water is, however, quite fatal to its growth.

Tolera/nci and reproduction. — In its demand for light, the Loblolly
is very similar to the Shortleaf Pine, with the important exception

22019— No. 32—02 3

34 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

that under certain conditions it can tolerate a greater amount of shade
during youth: where the soil conditions are favorable. Loblolly seed-
lings will come up under an amount of shade from the hardwoods
which Shortleaf seedlings would not be able to withstand. Neverthe-
less, the Loblolly, like the Shortleaf, develops to best advantage under
direct, open sunlight.

When 25 or 3(> years of age this species begins to produce seed
abundantly, and. when conditions are favorable, the reproduction is
equal if not superior to that of the Shortleaf. Here, again, the young
growth flourishes best in old fields, and the thickets and pole forests
of Loblolly on such ground are similar in every respect to those
described for Shortleaf Pine. The question as to whether Loblolly or
Shortleaf will predominate on old fields depends largely on which
species the locality is best adapted to. When conditions of soil arc
equally favorable to both species the Loblolly will generally win on
account of its faster growth. But on very poor, dry ridge land the
Shortleaf has the best of it. Very rarely indeed do the two species
grow up into a forest where each is equally represented; one or the
other will generally predominate largely in the end.

In the forest the best reproduction of Loblolly Pine is on the pine
flats, because on them the mature trees are much more numerous.
Here the young growth is usually found in large or small groups.
always making for the open spaces, where there are any. The repro-
duction is in o-eneral much better than that of Shortleaf. on account of
the greater tolerance of the Loblolly, and because of the smaller per-
centage of hardwoods in mixture where the reproduction of this species
occurs. As might be expected from its greater tolerance, Loblolly
gradually gains the upper hand over Shortleaf where the former has
an equal chance. It must be remembered, however, that the number
of seed-bearing Shortleaf Pine is far greater than that of the Loblolly,
and hence the latter species is at a great disadvantage. Nevertheless,
the percentage of Loblolly is gradually increasing.

Ocewrrence. — Loblolly occurs mostly in large groups, although
occurrence by single trees is not at all uncommon. These large groups
often have the appearance of miniature pure forests, as the percentage
of hardwoods in mixture is small. If fire is kept out, the forest of the
future should consist of much larger groups, and it can even be
expected that over considerable areas the Loblolly will completely
supplant the hardwoods and form very valuable stands of pure pine.

Development. — Lender favorable conditions this species produces a
long, straight bole, free from branches to a height of 50 or 60 feet
from the ground, and has a thin and irregular crown. Its percentage
of sapwood is greater than that of the latter species, as the table
following shows.

SILVICULTURAL NOTES.

35

Table No. 11. — Per cent of sapwood in the merchantable contents of Shortleaf and
Loblolly Pine, for diameters from 24 to 32 inches, breasthigh.

Diameter
breasthigh.

■Shortleaf.

Loblolly.

Inches.

Per cent.

Per cent.

24

55.4

76.0

25

53. 4

72. 5

26

51.4

68.9

27

49.9

65. 2

28

48.7

61.3

29

47.7

57.3

30

47.0

53.1

31

46. 3

48.9

32

45. 8

44.5

The growth of the Loblolly Pine can best be understood by a study
of the curves of the various diagrams. Most of these will be found in
the figures already given for Shortleaf Pine. The curves for both
species are shown on the same diagram, that the two may be more
readily compared.

Relation of age to diameter. — (See fig. 5.) The curve for Loblolly
Pine here shows a much more rapid growth than that of the Shortleaf.
For the first one hundred years the average time required to grow 1
inch is four and one-half years. If the cutting limit be placed at 12
inches, it will be seen that Loblolly reaches a merchantable size when
44 years old. or eighteen years earlier than the Shortleaf.

Relation of age to height. — (See fig. 6.) The height growth for
Loblolly is rapid and very uniform for nearly forty years. After this
age the rate gradually diminishes. For the first one hundred years
the yearly average growth in height is 1.04 feet. As can be seen from
the two curves, there is very little difference in the height growth of
the two species tor the first twenty year-.

Relation of age to merchantable contents. — (See fig. 7.) The volume
curve here given for Loblolly Pine is seen to be very nearly a straight
line. The rate of increase in merchantable contents is remarkably
uniform. The upper portion of this line is dotted, because so very few
Loblollies over 160 years of age were analyzed that the results can
not be accepted as conclusive. It is probable that in practice the
actual contents of the older trees would be somewhat less than is here
shown. Between the ages of 44 (when the Loblolly reaches a diameter
of 12 inches) and loo years, the average yearly increase m merchant-
able contents is 9.28 board feet per tree.

Relation between diameter, total height, merchantaHt length, crown
length, and clear length. — (See fig. 9.) In trees from 15 to 30 inches
in diameter the merchantable length increases quite rcgularlv as the
diameter becomes larger, but in trees above 30 inches the length of

36 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

merchantable timber increases but slightly. In proportion to the
total height the greatest merchantable length is obtained from trees
about 20 inches in diameter, and. as with the Shortleaf. this amounts
to only one-half the total height of the tree. The merchantable length
is less than the clear length in trees below 20 inches in diameter, but
in large trees the reverse is true.

14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40

DIAMETER BREAST HIGH-INCHES

Fig. 9.— Diagram showing the relation between the total height, merchantable length, crown length,
and clear length for Loblolly Pine on the basis of diameter breasthigh.

Practical Value of the Loblolly Pine as compared with the Shortleaf Pixe.

In case conservative lumbering is undertaken upon the tract of the
Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company, it will be possible to increase the
percentage of the most valuable species in the forest of the future.
As already said, there is no doubt whatever that an increase in the
stand of pine and a decrease in that of hardwoods would very mate-
rially increase the value of the forest. More than this, there are notable
differences between the two species of pine, and such differences should
also be taken into consideration, and the species which gives promise

SILVICULTURAL NOTES. 37

of affording; the largest returns in the future should be favored in every
way possible.

The only advantage which the Shortleaf possesses over the Loblolly
Pine is that at the present time Shortleaf Pine lumber commands a
slightly higher price than Loblolly, owing principally to the greater
amount of sapwood in the Loblolly. On the other hand, the Loblolly
has the following great advantages over the Shortleaf:

(1) The reproduction is easier to obtain, because Loblolly endures
more shade during extreme youth and so has a better chance in the
struggle with the hardwoods.

(2) The rate of growth of Loblolly is much more rapid than that
of Shortleaf; hence it produces a given amount of timber in a much
shorter time.

(3) Wherever Loblolly becomes firmly established the forest growth
tends to be more dense and more nearly" a pure pine forest than with
Shortleaf. The stand per acre is therefore greater.

These advantages of the Loblolly outweigh the slight superiority
in the wood of the Shortleaf, and it would be advisable, therefore, to
favor the former species in every possible way. This can be done by
using care in the selection of trees to be left standing for seed pur-
poses. Wherever feasible, Loblolly should be left in preference to
Shortleaf. Great care is necessary, however, in selecting the trees to
be left, as much depends upon the nature of the locality. In some
situations the Shortleaf would develop to much better advantage than
the Loblolly. In such cases Loblolly should not be favored.

Cow Oak {Quercus michauxii Nutt.).

Sit nut io„. — This species occurs only in the hardwood bottom type.
In these bottom lands the important point is whether the various spe-
cies occupy the lower or the higher levels, the moist or wet, or the
relatively dryer soils. Cow Oak always occurs on the slight eleva-
tions and invariably shuns the depressions, showing that it is not
suited to an excess of moisture in the soil.

Soil.— Ho variation exists in the composition of the soil of these
bottom lands, and all the species flourish alike on the deep, fresh or
moist compact loam.

Tolerance and reproduction. — In common with the other oaks, the
Cow Oak is very intolerant of shade and requires full light for devel-
opment during its entire life. Reproduction of this species is exceed-
ingly scanty, and not likely to be increased by lumbering, for in spite
of the favorable conditions of light which would be created it is
improbable that the seedlings could withstand the dense growth of
cane and the frequent floods.

Occurrence. Cow Oak is one of the most common as well as the
most valuable species of the bottoms,' and occurs by single tree- evenly

38 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

distributed throughout the type. Very few young trees are present;
almost the entire stand is composed of veterans.

Development. — The Cow Oaks of these bottoms have massive cylin-
drical boles, rising- 60 or TO feet before branching. They bulge out
considerably at the base, and as a rule incline to be squarish or angu-
lar in form. Small clumps of twigs commonly sprout out at short
intervals over the whole length of the stem.

The crown is large and massive, consisting generally of two or three
heavy main forks, and extends slightly above the surrounding forest
canopy, occupying a large amount of space when well developed. It
must always have plenty of light and room.

White Oak (Quercus alba Linn.).

The White Oaks of the bottom lands are similar in every way to the
Cow Oaks described above. When growing on the pine lands this
species is inferior in character and of much smaller proportions. It
seeks out the best soils, reproduces readily, and is intolerant of shade.

Sweet Gum (IAquidambar styradflua Linn).

Situation. — This species occurs both on the elevations and in the
depressions of the bottom lands, and is able to grow in places where
standing water is present during most of the year. It is also com-
mon throughout the pine lands, but the growth is here very scrubby
in comparison with the splendid development attained in the bottoms.

Tolerana and reproduction. — Sweet Gum can tolerate a good deal of
shade, and the reproduction grows well under the shelter of oak, ash,
hickory, etc. It seems also to flourish equally well in the open. This
is the only species of the bottoms with a fair amount of young growth
present. Its reproduction occurs everywhere, although in a thin and
scattered form.

Occurrence. — Sweet Gum occurs by single trees; occasionally also a
pure pole forest of limited extent is met with.

Development. — The bole is inclined to be somewhat crooked and
enlarged at the butt, and is fairly cylindrical and free from branches
for 50 or 60 feet from the ground. The crown is large and somewhat
more dense than that of the Cow Oak.

White Ash (Fraxinus americana Linn. ).

Situation. — Like the Sweet Gum, the White Ash flourishes in the
hollows of the bottoms where water collects, seeming to prefer such
locations to the drier elevations; it is found even in the sloughs, where
water is almost always present, at least to the depth of a few inches.
White Ash occurs to a very limited extent on the pine lands.

TolevanCi and reproduction. — White Ash can succeed under a good
deal of shade, but young growth is very scarce.

SILVICULTURAL NOTES. 39

Occurrence. — Always by single trees.

Development. — The bole is massive and cylindrical, and the crown
large, spreading, and irregular in shape. It attains about the same
proportions as the Sweet Gum.

Shagbark Hickory ( Hicoria aoata Britton).

Situation.— This species prefers the higher levels in the bottom
lands, and is never found in standing water. It occurs also on the
pine lands, but its development here is very poor in comparison with
the tine proportions it reaches in the bottoms.

Tolerance and reproduction. — Young growth is very scarce; what
there is seems to tolerate a certain amount of shade.

Occurrence. — Always by single trees.

Development. — The crown is large and dome shaped, and the bole
long, slender, and somewhat tapering; a clear length of 40 to 50 feet
is quite common.

Holly (Ilex opaca Ait.).

Situation. — The Holly seems to be at home alike on the slight ele-
vations and in the depressions of the bottoms, although always shun-
ning any considerable amount of standing water. It occurs but rarely
on the pine lands.

Tolerance and reproduction. — This species is very tolerant of shade.
It will come up under dense foliage and very slowly force its way
through the crowns of all species overtopping it. The reproduction
is scattering throughout.

Occurrence. — Always by single trees.

Development. — The Holly is small in comparison with the other
species, seldom attaining a height of over 30 or 40 feet or a diameter
of over 24 inches. Its bole is tapering and covered almost to the
ground by its dense, conical-shaped crown.

Hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana Walt.).

With the Holly, this species forms a kind of underwood to the large
oaks, gums, etc., although it is generally so stunted as to resemble a
bush rather than a tree. In regard to situation, tolerance, and occur-
rence it resembles the Holly, but in mode of growth it is very irreg-
ular, usually forming a crooked, short bole and a very broken and
open crown.

PART II.

FOREST MANAGEMENT.
INTRODUCTION.

Under ordinary lumbering the forest is treated as if its value lay-
only in the merchantable timber which it contains. Under practical
forestry immature trees have a value because they form the basis for
future crops. Practical forestry, through a slight expense in the care
of young growth and in the protection of the forest from lire, insures
the production of a permanent supply of timber. Ordinary lumber-
ing in saving this expense sacrifices largely or wholly the productive
capacity of the lumbered area.

The advantage of practical forestry as a business investment depends
naturally upon whether it offers better returns than those to be had
from ordinary lumbering. Since practical forestry reduces present
profits slightly, in order that the forest may produce a steady supply
of timber, its financial success rests upon the safety and value of the
future crops which it fosters. For example, uncontrollable danger of
fire makes forestry unadvisable, since the care given to the production
of a second crop may be nullified by injury to the young forest.
Again, a low profit on lumbering may render the probable value of
future crops of timber insufficient to justify the attempt to foster
them.

The tract of the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company presents con-
ditions which render the application of practical forestry a thoroughly
sound business measure. The forest contains an excellent stand of
merchantable timber which can be lumbered inexpensively and for
which there is a steady and profitable market. The protection of the
forest from tire is practicable at small cost and will render the repro-
duction of the pine a simple and certain matter. The stand of imma-
ture trees of certain sizes is somewhat deficient as the result of forest
fires in the past. This deficiency, however, is not large enough to
impair future yields seriously, and will be largely remedied under con-

servative management.

TIMBER YIELDS.

The following table shows, approximately, the present stand of mer-
chantable timber per acre upon the tract of the Sawyer & Austin
Lumber Company and the future yields to be expected from the lum-
bered areas. The measurements of the stand and of its rate of growth

40

TIMBER YIELDS.

41

upon which this table is based, were carefully made, and it is believed
the table is a fair estimate of what may be expected. It is exceed-
ingly probable that it underestimates rather than overestimates, since
not only were the most conservative figures used throughout, but no
allowance has been made for the improved conditions for forest growth
which will result under the application of conservative lumbering.

The table also shows the yield per acre of merchantable pine which
may be expected after twenty, thirty, and forty years, cutting to the
diameter limits of 12, 11, 16, 18, and 20 inches breasthigh, and also
the time required before a yield equal to the present merchantable
stand may again be obtained.

Table No. 12.

-Present (i n>! future yields of pine per acre, and time necessary before the
present yield may again be obtained.

Cutting-
limit,
diameter
breasthigh.

Present

cut.

Cut after
20 years.

Cut after
30 years.

Cut after
40 years.

Present
cut again
obtained.

Incht .v.

Board feet.

Board feet.

Board feet.

Board ft it.

Years.

12

6,067

1,047

2,467

5,270

42

14

5,845

957

2, 408

5,278

41

16

5,597

1.225

2, 678 '

5,212

41

18

5,130

1,309

2, 612

4, 678

42

20

4, 561

1,381.

2, 333

4,174

42

It will be noticed that in general the cut after twenty years increases
as the diameter limit is raised; that at thirty years the cut increases
to the 16-inch limit, and then falls away again, and that at forty years
it decreases as the diameter limit increases.

The time required before equal cuts can again be obtained is irregular
and needs explanation. Ordinarily, raising the diameter limit decreases
the time. But the table shows that the time is here the same whether
the diameter limit is 12 or 20 inches — forty-two years in each case.
This is due partly to the fact that the growth of the pine of small
diameters, especially that of the Loblolly, is very rapid. In forty-
two years Loblolly, with a present diameter of 12 inches, and Short-
leaf, with a present diameter of 14 inches, will have passed the L>o-inch
limit, and Loblolly of 2 inches mid Shortleaf of 5 inches will have
passed the 12-inch limit. A second reason for the disproportionate
length of the period required to produce a second crop equal to the
first at a 20-inch diameter limit is the tact that the forest is ix abnormal."
the number of trees between 14 and 20 inches being especially small.
as is shown by tig. 1, the probable result of the severer fires due to
the accumulated rubbish when tires first became frequent. These are
just the trees which would have to furnish the next equal crop cutting
to a diameter limit of 20 inches.

42 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

EFFECT OF FIRE PROTECTION UPON FUTURE YIELDS.

An important conclusion follows. The fires which have repeatedly
swept the tract have reduced the proportion of pine trees under 22
inches now standing. If the forest were normal — that is, if all age
classes were present in sufficient amounts to maintain the present stand
of mature timber in years to come — equal cuts could be obtained in
much shorter periods than are now necessary, and probably twenty-
five years would produce a second crop equal to the first, In that case
a total area of 170,000 acres would suffice for a sustained yield equal
to the present annual consumption instead of the much larger area now
required.

SUSTAINED ANNUAL YIELD OF THE FOREST.

The sustained annual yield which can be obtained from the forest is
given in the following table. It shows the annual merchantable cut
of pine per acre, the area to be lumbered annually, the total annual
cut, and the time required for a second cut equal to the first, for the
diameter limits of 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 inches.

Table No. 13. — Sustained annual yield of merchantable pine in hoard feet, area to be
lumbered annually, and time required to cut over tract.

Cutting

limit,

diameter

breast high,

Inches.

12
14

it;

18
20

Area to be
lumbered
annuallv.

Annual

cut per

acre.

Acres. > Boardfeet.

2,380
2,439
2, 439

2. MSI I

2,380

6,067
5, 845
5, 597
5,130

4, 561

Total annual
cut.

Time re-
quired to
cut over
tract.

Board fut.

Years.

14. 439, 460

42

14,255,955

41

13. (151.083

41

12, 209. 400

42

10,855,180

42

SUSTAINED ANNUAL YIELD IN RELATION TO THE PRESENT

CAPACITY OF THE MILL.

The Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company own and operate a mill with
an annual capacity of 40.000,000 board feet. The present tract of
100,000 acres, cutting to a diameter limit of 12 inches, can supply con-
tinuously about 14,500,000 feet per year. The following table shows,
approximately, the forest area which would be necessary to produce a
sustained annual yield of 40,000,000 board feet per year. It estimates
for the several diameter limits the annual cut per acre, the area to be
lumbered annually, the time required to cut over the present tract, and
that required for a second cut equal to the first,

INTEREST RETURNS ON CUT-OVER LANDS.

43

Table No. 14. — Area necessary for a sustained animal yield of 40,000,000 feet per annum.

Time re-

Time re-

quired be-

Total area

Cutting

limit,

diameter

Annual

Area to be

quired to

fore second

necessary

cut per
acre.

lumbered
annually.

cut over
present

cut equal
to first can

for sus-
tained an-

breasthigh.

tract.

be ob-
tained.

nual yield.

Inches.

Board feet.

Acres.

Yearn .

Years.

Acres.

12

6, 067

6. 593

15

42

276, 906

14

5,845

6,844

144

41

2S0, 604

16

5, 597

7,147

14

41

293, 027

IS

5, 130

7,797

13

42

327, 474

20

4,561

8.770

Hi

42

368, 340

Cutting to 12 inches, therefore, a sustained annual yield equal to
the capacity of the mill can be obtained by the addition of about
170,000 acres of forest land similar in character to that of the present
tract.

INTEREST RETURNS ON CUT-OVER LANDS.

It is obvious that calculations of future financial returns from con-
servative lumbering can not be infallible, because changes in the value
of land or of timber may entirely alter the premises upon which these
calculations are based. However, when compiled from adequate and
conservative data, estimates of future money returns are of reasonable
safety and of no small practical value.

The table below relates simply to land which has been cut over, and
shows the annual interest, represented by future cuts, on the capital
invested in the land. At the present time cut-over lands can be bought
at an average price of 50 cents per acre, but, in order to be conserva-
tive, calculations are made with such lands valued at $1 and $1.50.
Taxes are taken at 3 cents per acre per annum, and the cost of pro-
tection against tire at 2 cents per acre per annum, making a yearly
expense of 5 cents per acre per annum. Pine stumpage is now worth
$1.50 per thousand board feet, and the returns from future cuts were
accordingly figured for stumpage values of $1.50 and $2. As a mat-
ter of fact, the probability is that after thirty or forty years the value
of pine stumpage will be considerably above $2 and the interest
returns shown by future cuts greatly increased in consequence.

44 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

Table No. 15. — Annual interest represented by future cuts on the capital invested in cut-

over lands.

STUM PAGE VALUE, $1.50 PER THOUSAND BOARD FEET.

Cutting

limit,

After 20 years.

After 30 years.

After 40 years.

When equal cut
occurs.

Equal
cut

diam-
eter
breast -

high.

again

ob-
tained.

81 per
acre.

SI. 50 per
acre.

81 per
acre.

81.50 per
acre.

81 per 81.50 per
acre. acre.

SI per 81.50 per
acre. acre.

Inches.

Per cent.

Per ct at.

Per a ill-

Per cent.

Per rent. Per cent.

Per cent. Per c< at.

Years.

12

3.9

3.1

4.9

4.1

6. 6 5. 6

7.0 6.0

42

14

3.6

2.9

4.8

4.0

6. 6 5. 7

7.0 6.0

41

16

4.6

3.7

5.4

4.5

>;. 5 5. 6

6. 7 5. 8

41

18

4.9

3.9

5.2

4.4

5. 8 5.

5. 9 5. 1

42

20

5.2

4.1

4.T

3.9

5. 2 4. 5

5. 3 4. 5

42

STUMPAGE VALUE. 82 PER TH< (USAND BOARD FEET.

12

5.2

4.2

6. 6

5 5

8.8

7.5

9.3

8.0

42

14

4.8

3.8

6.4

5.4

8.8

7.5

9.3

8.0

41

16

6.1

4.9

7.1

6.0

8.7

7.4

9.0

7. 7

41

18

6.5

5.2

7.0

5.8

7.8

6.7

7.9

6.8

42

20

6.9

5.5

6.2

5.2

7.0

6.0

7.0

6.0

42

CONCLUSIONS.

The study made by the Bureau of Forestrv establishes the fact that
the application of practical forestry to the tract of the Sawyer & Austin
Lumber Company would be a sound business measure. It shows
furthermore that in the cheapness of logging, the value of the prod-
uct, the quick growth and the ready reproduction of the timber trees,
and the practicability of inexpensive and effective measures against
fire, the opportunity is a markedly favorable one.

The yield to be expected from cut-over lands shows a high return
from the capital invested in them. Cutting to the advised diameter
limit of 12 inches breasthigh. or about 14 inches on the stump, with
stumpage reckoned at $2 per 1,000 board feet, and the value of cut-
over land at $1 per acre, the average annual interest represented by
the future crop on cut-over lands is, for a period of forty years, nearly
9 per cent. In other words, after the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Com-
pany have lumbered their present tract at the rate of 14,500,000 feet
per year, the lands which have been cut over will be producing timber
which, at a conservative estimate, represents an income of 8.8 per
cent on the capital invested in them.

It has been shown that, in order to assure a sustained annual yield
equal to the capacity of the mill, the addition of 170,000 acres to the
present tract is necessary. With this addition, or its equivalent in
stumpage, the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company can cut continuously
40,000,000 board feet per year. If this addition is not made, it is
clearly unadvisable for the company to lumber its tract upon the
principle of a sustained annual yield, since this would fall short by
about 25,500,000 board feet of the annual capacity of its mill.

Bui. 32, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IX.

Fig. 1.— Pine Tops after a Ground Fire.

Fig. 2.— The Steam Skidder.

RULES OF MANAGEMENT. 45

The quantity of timber taken annually from the tract has no bearing
upon the main question before the company: Whether the applica-
tion of conservative lumbering is justified by the value reasonably to
be expected for a future crop of timber from the lumbered area.
Under the very small added expense incident to the application of the
rules for forest management which follow, the productive capacity of
the cut-over lands will be preserved and they will supply a second
crop of merchantable timber, which represents an exceedingly good
rate of interest upon the capital invested in them. Whether the second
crop is grown in order to be cut by the Sawyer & Austin Lumber Com-
pany, or whether the cut-over lands be sold after the merchantable
stand is removed, has no bearing upon the advisability of conservative
lumbering in the present case. The increased value of the cut-over
lands in either event renders the application of practical forestry in
the lumbering now going on a safe and advantageous business measure.

RULES OF MANAGEMENT.

CUTTING LIMIT FOR PINE.

The cutting limit for pine should be placed at 14 inches on the stump
( L2 inches breasthigh). This is advisable for the following reasons:

(1) The largest cut at the present time will be obtained.

( 2 ) An equal cut can be harvested after the same number of years
required in case a higher cutting'limit were used.

(3) As a result, a sustained annual yield equal to the capacity of the
mill can be obtained by the addition of a much smaller forest area than
that required by a higher diameter limit.

(4) With a cutting limit of 12 inches, logging operations will be more
concentrated and hence more profitable than if the limit were higher.

(5) A cutting limit below 12 inches would be inadvisable both
financially and silviculturally.

SEED TREES.

When the first cutting is made a small number of Loblolly and
Shortleaf Pine trees above 12 inches in diameter breasthigh should be
left standing. These trees should be selected and marked beforehand
by a trained forester. The Bureau of Forestry cooperates with the
Sawyer & Austin Lumber Company in these markings. It is probable
(hat after they have once been well started by an agent of the Bureau,
and a competent man in the employ of the company has had oppor-
tunity to become thoroughly acquainted with the manner in which
tiny are made, they can be carried out successfully thereafter under
his supervision alone. The number of trees to, be left should be
determined by the nature of the locality. In all eases the Loblolly
is to be favored, unless the locality be distinctly unfavorable to this
species. The leaving of such trees for seed purposes will not involve
any appreciable loss to the company.

46 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.
CUTTING LIMIT FOR THE HARDWOODS OF THE BOTTOM LANDS.

In the hardwood bottoms the cutting- limit should be placed at 20
inches. Although no study of the rate of growth in these bottoms
was made, it seems probable from the composition of the stand that
if such a cutting limit be adopted a second cut can be obtained when
the pine lands are lumbered again.

Every opportunity should be taken advantage of to cut and utilize
the hardwoods of the pine lands, even at a very small profit.

HEIGHT OF STUMPS.

Stumps should not be cut higher than 18 inches, and all trees below
18 inches on the stump should be cut 12 inches from the ground.

At the present time stumps are being cut at an average height of 18
inches from the ground, and this rule appears to be fairly satisfactory.
No trees below 18 inches in diameter on the stump are now cut, but
probably no difficulty would be met with in getting the sawyers to cut
the small trees (below 18 inches) at 12 inches from the ground.

Logs should also be cut as high up into the crowns as conditions
will allow.

PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE.

The principal difficulty in the way of adopting a good system of fire
protection is the broken character of the company's holdings. If the
tract were in one solid block the matter would be much simplified.
Cut up as it is at present by farms and private wood lots, the sources
of danger from tire are greatly multiplied, because tires purposely set
on these holdings are never watched or controlled, and as a general
thing quickly spread.

The forest would prosper most if the whole tract could be protected
from tire. On account of the difficulties just mentioned, however,
such a course would in all probability be impracticable at the present
time. The most urgent need at present is a thorough system of pro-
tection for the cut-over lands. This is entirely practicable and should
by all means be adopted. After the opening of the forest the young-
growth will quickly develop on these lumbered areas, and it is of the
greatest importance that it be given every possible chance for rapid
growth and that the reproduction of the pine be effectively protected
in every way. The tops of felled trees are a source of great danger and
should be burned as soon as thev are drv enough to burn readily, at a
time w y hen the forest floor is clamp and there is no danger of the tire
spreading. It is probable that the cheapest and most effective way of
disposing of the tops will be to skid them into piles and then to burn
as many together as can conveniently be skidded to one point.

Fire protection would cost about $500 per year for the first few
years. This would pay the salary of one man. who should have entire
charge of burning the tops and at the same time act as a fire guard

RULES OF MANAGEMENT. 47

and patrol the cut-over land. By such a system the area under fire
protection would increase from year to year, until finally protection
would be extended to the whole tract. As soon as the lumbered area
becomes too large for one guard to control, another man should be
added. In ca.se a fire breaks out which the guard can not control by
himself, he should have authority to hire what help may be necessary,
and, if such a fire occurs in the vicinity of lumbering operations, the
Wo-ino- force should be turned out to fight it.

Roads are excellent fire lines, and form very good bases from which
to work against fire, as well as checking any light ground fire in
whose course they lie. The abandoned railroad spurs are valuable for
the same purpose, and should be kept clear of all litter. If this is
done the damage from fire will be very materiallv decreased.

Great care should be taken to keep in good order the spark arresters
of the locomotives and skidder.

The main point to be urged is a thorough system of fire protection
for the cut-over lands. At the present rate of cutting some 6.500
acres will be lumbered annually. If a start is now made by protect-
ing the area cut over during the past year, the initial expense will be
small, and, if the attempt proves successful, another 6,500 acres can be
added the next year, and the protected area thus gradually increased.
It is reasonable to expect that as time goes on experience will tend
toward a reduction in expenses, and also that as the sentiment of the
inhabitants improves, forest fires will become less numerous.

CAKE IN FELLING.

It is fully realized that it is almost impossible to secure care in fell-
ing the trees, owing to the character of the labor force employed.
Moreover, the small amount of young growth already present fortu-
nately makes regulations regarding this of little importance. If the
ground were covered by a valuable reproduction of pine and the labor
force were of a different type, rules would be required.

■

INSPECTION.

An agent of the Bureau of Forestry should inspect each year the
area lumbered during the preceding year, and at the same time mark
the seed trees to be left standing in the next cutting area, lie should
report fully as to the manner in which the rules for lumbering have
been carried out and describe in detail any damage caused by fire in
the preceding year. This will involve an expense to the company of
about £l ; oo a year.

SUMMARY OF RILES FOR LUMBERING.

(1) The cutting limit for pine to be 14 inches on the stump, and for
hardwoods 20 inches.

48 WORKING PLAN FOR FOREST LANDS NEAR PINE BLUFF, ARK.

(2) A certain number of pine trees over 14 inches on the stump to
be marked and left standing for seed purposes.

(3) Hardwoods on pine lands to be cut whenever practicable.

(4) All pine 18 inches and over in diameter on the stump to be sawn
not higher than 18 inches from the ground, and that below 18 inches
in diameter on the stump at 12 inches from the ground.

(5) Care to be used in the felling to do as little damage as practicable
to valuable young growth.

LIST OF TREES FOUND.

.

Shortleaf Pine Pinus echinata Mill.

Loblolly Pine Pinus tseda Linn.

Bald Cypress Taxodium distichum | Linn. ) Rich.

Butternut Juglam cinerea Linn.

Black Walnut Tuglans nigra Linn.

Bitternut Hickory Hicoria minima (Marsh. ) Britton.

Shagl >ark Hickory Hicoria ovaia i Mill. ) Britton.

Pignut Hickory Hicoria glabra | Mill. ) Britton.

Hornbeam Oslrya virginiana ( Mill. I Koch.

Hornbeam Carpinus caroliniana Walt.

Beech Fagus airopunict a (Marsh. ) Sudworth

Chinquapin ( aslanea pumila ( Linn. ) Mill.

White Oak Qua reus alba Linn.

Post Oak Quercus minor i Marsh, i Sargent

Overcup Oak Quercus lyrata Walt.

Cow Oak Qua reus michauxii Nutt.

Red Oak Qua reus rubra Linn.

Yellow (or Black i Oak Qut reus < < lutina Lam.

Spanish Oak Quercus digitata I Marsh, i Sudworth.

Black Jack Qua. reus marilandica Muenchh.

Water Oak Quercus nigra Linn.

Willow Oak Qua reus pfa Uos Linn.

White Elm Ulmus arm ricana Linn.

Red Mulberry Moras rubra Linn.

Papaw isimina triloba ( Linn. ) Dunal.

Sassafras Sassafras sassafras | Linn, i Karst.

Sweet Cum Liquidarnbar styracifi.ua Linn.

Sycamore Plata,, us occidentalis Linn.

Honey Locust Gleditsia triacanthos Linn.

Locust Robinia pst udaeacia Linn.

American Holly Ilex opaca Ait.

Deciduous Holly Ilex decidua Walt.

Silver Maple [<■,,- saccharinum Linn.

Red Maple ; icer rubrum Linn.

Boxelder Acer negundo Linn.

Basswood ( Linn, i 77/;,, americana Linn.

Dogwood Cornusflorida Linn.

Black Gum Nyssa sylvaiica Marsh.

W hite Ash Fraxinus americana Linn.

o

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY-BULLETIN No. 33.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

BY

EDWARD T. ALLEN,

FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 9 2 .

BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

Forester, Gifford Pinchot,

Assistant Forester, Overton W. Price.

Assistant Forester, George B. Sudworth.

Chief Clerk, Otto J. J. Luebkert.

Superintendent of Tree Planting, William L. Hall.

Jul. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agr.culture.

Frontispiece.

TYPICAL FOREST MIXTURE IN WASHINGTON. SPECIE S, FROM LEFT
TO RIGHT: RED FlR, SPRUCE, HEMLOCK, CEDAR, RED F.R.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY-BULLETIN No. 33.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

BY

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN

EDWARD T. ALLEN,

FIELD ASSISTANT, BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

WASHINGTON.

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1 90'2.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Forestry,
Washington, D. C, March 8, 1902.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report entitled "The
Western Hemlock," prepared by Edward T. Allen, held assistant in
the Bureau of Forestry, and to recommend its publication as Bulletin
No. 33 of this Bureau.

Very respectfully, Gifford Pinchot,

Forester.
Hon. James Wilson,

St cretary of Agriculture.

SUMMARY

Western Hemlock has suffered so severely through the reputation of
its Eastern relative among- lumber manufacturers and consumers that
it has at present scarcely any market standing. To remove this preju-
dice and to introduce the Western Hemlock to the market by pointing
out its uses, its economic value, and the conditions under which it
may profitably be grown, lumbered, and manufactured, was one of the
purposes of a two seasons' study on the ground, the results of which
are embodied in this report. The other purpose was to ascertain the
qualities and possibilities for forestry of a tree that must inevitably
take on great importance in conservative lumbering in the Northwest.

The conclusions to which this study has led may be briefly sum-
marized as follows:

(1) The wood of the Western Hemlock is far superior to that of the
Eastern tree. It is suitable for use in all ordinary building work; it
furnishes good paper pulp; it is sufficiently light and strong to make
excellent wooden ware stock, and it is particularly valuable for indoor
tinishino-. Its bark is half again as rich in tannin as that of the East-
ern tree.

(2) Under favorable conditions the Western Hemlock reproduces
abundantly and grows very rapidly. Since these conditions are usually
disadvantageous to Red Fir, hemlock may often be counted upon to
reforest cut-over lands when Red Fir would probably fail to establish
itself.

(3) The Western Hemlock has now to contend mainly with a preju-
dice which is based upon a knowledge of the Eastern tree alone. The
importance of bringing it into the market on a large scale as a substi-
tute for Spruce and White Pine is growing rapidly. Its qualities
entitle it to rank among the valuable timber trees of this continent.

:;

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction "

Distribution 9

Associated species 10

Undergrowth H

Habit 11

Tolerance H

Growth under cover 12

Demands upon soil and moisture 14

Reproduction 14

Enemies 15

Fungi (conk and ground rot) 15

Insects 16

Boring beetles 18

Black check 19

Immunity from white ants (termites) 20

Parasites - 20

The wood 21

Durability 1 22

Defects 22

Uses 23

Manufacturing problems 24

Present market standing 24

Accessibility 26

Lumbering 28

Volume and yield, first-growth Hemlock 30

Logged-off lands 36

Volume and yield, second-growth Hemlock 40

Utilization of second-growth stands 44

Hemlock left after lumbering 46

Bark ---- 48

Volume and yield 50

Harvesting 52

Extract 53

A list of the trees of Oregon and Washington 54

5

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES.

^ , Page.

Typical forest mixture in Washington Frontispiece.

Plate I. Figs. 1 and 2.— Pure stand of Western Hemlock, Cascade foothills,

Washington 10

II. Typical mixture of Red Fir and Hemlock, Black Hills, Washington. ]0

III. Fig. 1.— Semi-Alpine forest of Noble Fir, Red Fir, and Western

Hemlock, Mount Rainier Forest Reserve. Fig. 2.— Western White
Pine, Cascade Mountains, Washington 10

IV. Fig. 1. — Young Hemlock growing on Red Fir stump. Fig. 2. —

Hemlock, second growth, 12 to 1-4 years old, on logged-off land,

near Hoquiam, Wash 14

V. Fig. 1. — Hemlock seedlings growing on rotten wood. Fig. 2. — Hem-
lock, second growth, 15 years old, on logged-off land, near

I Ioquiam, Wash 14

VI. Fig. 1.— "Conky" living Hemlock, showing fruiting organs. Fig.
2.— Distortion of trunk and branches of Hemlock caused by

Arceuthobium occidentale ". 16

VII. Fig. 1.— "Black check" in Hemlock lumber, caused by insect injury
when tree was small. Fig. 2.— Hemlock near Hoquiam, Wash.,

killed by Buprestid larvae 16

VIII. Fig. 1.— Fasciation of Hemlock branch, caused by Arceuthobium
occidentale. Fig. 2.— Hemlock stump cut high to avoid ground-
rot 20

IX. Fig. 1.— Second-growth Red Fir, 70 years old; Dryad, Wash. Fig.
2.— Mature Red Fir, 380 years old; young Hemlock beneath;

Black Hills, Washington 30

X. Fig. 1.— Logged-off land, Buckley, Wash.; Hemlock and diseased
Fir left standing. Fig. 2.— Hemlock left after logging, Enumclaw,

Wash., showing stumps of Red Fir 38

XI. Pure second-growth Hemlock, 55 years old, South Bend, Wash 40

XII. Figs. 1 and 2.— Western Hemlock, Cascade Mountains, Washington,

showing thick, rough bark of mountain form 52

TEXT FIGURES.

Fig. 1.— Diagram showing height growth of mature Bed Fir and of Hemlock

growing beneath it, calculated on a basis i >f age 12

2.— Diagram showing diameter growth of mature Red Fir and of Hem-
lock, calculated on a basis of age 13

3.— Diagram showing growth in height of second-growth Hemlock and

Fir, on a basis of diameter breasthigh -. 40

4. — Diagram showing growth in diameter of second-growth Red Fir and

Hemlock in pure stands and of Hemlock in mixture with Bed Fir.. 41

5. — Diagram showing yield per acre in board feel OD a basis of age of pure

even-aged Hemlock with and without deduction for cull 43

7

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

INTRODUCTION.

The stimulus apparent in the lumber industry of the Northwest
within the last few years, with the recent immense investments in
standing timber in that region and the realization that its supply is
limited, has created an interest in the long-despised Western Hemlock.
This species forms 13 per cent of the forests of Washington and is
abundant in many parts of Oregon. Apparent inability to utilize it
is one of the most serious factors in the local lumber problem. Were
it practicable for the Hemlock to stand unharmed until it became
established in the market there would be less cause for immediate
concern. But, seldom growing in pure stands, the Hemlock in mix-
ture with the Red Fir, Spruce, and Cedar now being logged is left
standing by the lumberman to be destoyed by fire, wind, or insects, a
complete loss to the owner and to the communitj^.

This waste is in line with the history of lumbering in the North-
eastern and Lake States, but with more serious result and with less
justification. The Eastern Hemlock is an inferior wood, and therefore
was left uncut until more valuable species became scarce. The disad-
vantage of the Western Hemlock has been not its quality, but its
confusion with the Eastern species. It has been condemned without
trial except by a few, who, realizing the difficulty of convincing the
market, have manufactured under the names of Fir, Spruce, or Alaska
Pine as much Hemlock as they dared without fear of detection.

The importance of bringing Hemlock into the market on a large
scale is now being realized and its surreptitious use is somewhat greater
than it was formerlv. There is still, however, a total lack of oraran-
ized effort, and practically nothing is done to acquaint the consumer
with its merits.

DISTRIBUTION.

The Western Hemlock extends from Alaska southward to Marin
County, Cal., to the coast region in California and southern Oregon in
the southern, and east to Montana in the northern, portion of the belt
The first printed mention of the species occurs in an account of the
voyage of Admiral Vancouver, a British navigator, who visited Puget
Sound in May. L792. In .July of the following year Alexander Mac-
it

10 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

kenzie, the first white man to cross the North American continent,
saw the Hemlock in latitude 52° on the coast of what is now British
Columbia. The first description of the tree was published in 1814 in
the journal of the Lewis and Clarke Expedition, which passed the win-
ter of 1805 near the mouth of the Columbia River. These explorers
spoke of it as a tree "four to six feet in diameter, straight, round,
and regularly tapering."

The distribution of the species indicates clearly its chief require-
ments to be a cool and moist climate. Western Washington and
Oregon, where it reaches its best development, are divided into three
longitudinal belts, each with distinct characteristics of soil and climate.
The western strip, between the Pacific Ocean and the Coast Range (which
becomes the Olympic Mountains in the north), has a fertile, usually
clayey soil and an annual rainfall of from TO to 100 inches. This strip
contains a large proportion of Hemlock, in mixture with Spruce, Cedar,
and Red Fir. (See Frontispiece.) Between the Coast Range and the
foot of the Cascades lies a belt which, protected from the moist sea
winds, is comparatively dry. In Washington the soil is glacial drift,
consisting chiefly of gravels; in Oregon it forms the rich agricultural
lands along the Willamette and other rivers. In this belt there is
little Hemlock, the growth being nearly pure Red Fir, with Cedar on
the low ground, and some Pine. On ascending the west slopes of the
Cascades the change is again distinctly marked. The soil is of either
volcanic or sedimentary origin, and the increasing altitude causes con-
densation of the moisture which escapes the Coast Range and is carried
eastward over the central valley. Here the Hemlock again appears
and, at an altitude of from 1,500 to 3,500 feet, reaches its best develop-
ment, and is most free from insect attacks and from disease.

ASSOCIATED SPECIES.

Hemlock rarely occurs in pure stands of great extent, although
Clallam County. Wash., contains large forests of Hemlock, and there
are tracts in Jefferson and King counties in which the percentage of
other species is small. (PI. I.) It commonly occurs in a mixture in
which Red Fir is apt to be the prevailing species. (PI. II.) Along
the coast it is associated with Spruce and Cedar, and in northern Cali-
fornia with Redwood. Occurring up to an altitude of nearly 5.000
feet, it is almost always one of the many species which form the widely
varying mixture on the west slope of the Cascades. With Red Fir,
Spruce, Cedar, and White Fir, it constitutes the forest now being
lumbered in the foothills; higher, its associates are White Pine (PI. Ill,
tig. 2), Noble Fir, Amabilis Fir (PI. Ill, fig. 1), and, near its upper
limit, Alaska Cedar and the Alpine Hemlock. Toward the west slope
of the Rockies, the eastern limit of its range, it becomes more distinctly
a mountain tree and grows in what has been called the White Pine

3ul. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

Fig. 1— Pure Stand of Western Hemlock, Cascade Foothills, Washington.

Altitude, 1,300 Feet.

Fig 2.— Pure Stand of Western Hemlock. Cascade Foothills.
Washington. Altitude. 1,300 Feet.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

Typical Mixture of Red Fir and Hemlock, Black Hills,

Washington.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Fiq. 1.— Semi-Alpine Forest of Noble Fir, Red Fir, and Western Hemlock. Mount
Rainier Forest Reserve. Altitude, 2,400 Feet.

Fig. 2. -Western White Pine, Cascade Mountains, Washington.
Altitude, 2.500 Feet.

HABIT. 11

zone. Other trees in this zone are Tamarack, Engelmann Spruce,
Lodgepole Pine, and Cedar. Throughout the range of the Western
Hemlock broadleaf trees are so few that they are of no consequence as
factors in the mixture. Where the climate is too dry to be generally
favorable, Hemlock takes refuge on north slopes and in shaded valleys,
where it can hold its own against Fir mainly because, since fire is
infrequent, the latter finds an unsuitable seed bed and insufficient light
in such localities.

A list of the trees of Oregon and Washington contains a few which
seldom or never occur in mixture with Hemlock, but it is given for
reference on page 54.

UNDERGROWTH.

Since Hemlock rarely forms a pure stand it has no characteristic
undergrowth of its own. Vine Maple is common and Oregon Grape,
ferns, and mosses constitute the smaller growth. In low, wet situa-
tions Devil's Club and Salmonberry are often abundant. No shrub is
more characteristic of the pure fir forest than Salal, which prefers a
dry soil and is therefore not much in evidence in the moist localities
where Hemlock is at its best. Where it occurs forest reproduction is
poor, for Salal covers the ground with a dense thicket 2 or 3 feet high.
The leaves are thick and oily and encourage rather than prevent fire.
A list of some of the more important shrubs which occur in the forests
of Washington and Oregon, will be found on page 55.

HABIT.

The Western Hemlock has been found with a diameter of S and a
height of 250 feet, and these dimensions may occasionally be surpassed.
As a rule mature trees are from 3 to 5 feet in diameter at breastheight.
The trunk is exceedingly cylindrical, although often with a sudden,
irregular buttressing near the base, due to the germination of the
seed on a log or stump. The branches are small and pendulous, form-
ing a narrow spire-shaped crown which otters little resistance to the
wind and serves somewhat to offset the insecurity of a shallow root
system. Near the top of the tree and where exposed to the light the
foliage is exceedingly dense and tufted, appearing almost fascicled, a
provision which secures a very large leaf surface. Overtopped trees
are able to form spreading crowns, and thus to accomplish the same
result. The Hemlock clears itself of branches somewhat slowly.

TOLERANCE.

Western Hemlock will germinate and grow under dense shade.
This characteristic, called tolerance, is one of the most important
factors in determining the composition of the forest. Red Fir requires
abundant light in youth, and hence seedlings of this species do not

12

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

come up beneath a heavy .stand of mature timber. Hemlock and
Cedar thrive under cover and, where climate and soil are favorable,
occur in stands containing" trees differing - widely in age, since } T oung
trees are continually growing up to replace those which die and are
blown down. In a forest of Red Fir, however, the trees are practi-
cally of the same age and no reproduction takes place until a large
proportion of them are removed and light is freely admitted to the
ground. This is usually accomplished by fire.

Where, as is frequent, the forest consists of an upper story of large
Fir and a lower story of Hemlock of varying age, it often occurs that

240

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
AGE-YEARS

Fig. 1.— Diagram showing height growth of mature Red Fir and of Hemlock growing beneath it,

calculated on a basis of age.

as the Fir dies the Hemlock gradually takes its place. Where Fir is
killed out by conk or ground- rot, the process is often rapid; and exami-
nation shows that the small areas stocked with a pure growth of young
Hemlock, so often seen in the midst of a Fir forest, were often caused
by this means. It is probable that disease in the old Red Fir forests
is largely responsible for the present distribution of Hemlock in
Washing-ton and Oregon.

GROWTH UNDER COVER.

No tree grows as rapidly in the shade as it does in the light, and
Hemlock which has come in under Fir shows a close and often very

HABIT.

13

irregular grain. The rate of growth often quickens as the tree pushes
up toward the light, and the grain becomes coarser and the wood
lighter. Red Fir, on the other hand, or Hemlock which has enjoyed
light in youth, shows a rapid growth near the heart and a slow growth
near the bark, when age has diminished the rate.

A peculiar silvicultural problem is presented by the constantly
diminishing density of the Red Fir overwood. Nearl} T all Red Fir
forests start on burns or open land and are very dense for the first fifty
or one hundred years. The young Hemlock which starts beneath the
Fir during this period gets little light and grows slowly. Later, as

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 160 200 220 240 260 280 300

AGE- YEARS

Fig. 2. — Diagram showing diameter growth of mature Red Fir and of Heniloek. calculated on a basis

of age.

the Firs begin to crowd each other out. more light is admitted and the
lower stoiy of Hemlock glows more rapidly. Hence, the older the
overwood the faster grow the Hemlock seedlings which come in beneath
it. The culmination of height growth as the Hemlock approaches
maturity therefore differs greatly from that under the usual forest
conditions where the supply of light remains constant. Instead of
falling off normally, as the trees approach maturity the growth of
the Hemlock forming the lower story is constantly stimulated by the
diminishing density of the upper story of Red Fir. (Figs. 1. 2.)

14 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

DEMANDS UPON SOIL AND MOISTURE.

The Hemlock ranges from mucky swamps to rocky hillsides. It
requires, however, a heavy rainfall and Is seldom found where the pre-
cipitation averages less than 40 inches annually, reaching best devel-
opment where it is above 70 inches. The finest Hemlock in Washing-
ton grows at an altitude of 2,000 to 3,500 feet on the western foothills
of Mount Rainier, where the annual precipitation is seldom less than
80 inches and snow lies half the year.

REPRODUCTION.

A prolific seeder and not fastidious as to seedbed, Hemlock repro-
duces freely under a wide range of conditions. In the drier inland
regions, or where the soil has been severely burned, it does not rival
Red Fir, but on the coast it far excels it. While Fir prefers a bare
mineral soil. Hemlock reproduces better on a humus of leaves or rotten
wood. (Pis. IV, V.) Stumps and fallen logs form a favorite seed-
bed, and large trees are often seen standing on leg-like roots, which,
starting from the log or stump, have extended downward to the ground,
finally to be left unsupported by the decay of their host. (PI. IV,
fig. 1.) Hemlock is thus enabled often to seed up ground where there
is sufficient light for the germination of Fir. Insects, wind, or a
ground fire may cause a tangle of fallen timber, later covering the
ground with rotten wood. A few fires may start under such condi-
tions, but Hemlock is likely to get the mastery. Near South Bend,
Wash., is an illustration of this on a large scale. About sixty years
ago the standing timber on a tract covering nearly a township was
destroyed. No sign of fire is visible. Appearances indicate that
this destruction was wrought by the measuring worm, which has since
attacked large areas of Hemlock along the coast, notably near Grays
Harbor and in Oreo-on. The original stand was chieflv Hemlock and
Spruce; now, almost rotten, it covers the ground 1 to 2 feet deep.
A few seed trees survive the catastrophe and record its date clearly
by two or three very close rings, showing slow recovery from the
injury, followed by greatly accelerated growth due to the increased
light. Although there was an abundant supply of Red Fir seed, none
germinated, and 90 per cent of the young growth now standing is
Hemlock, with an occasional Spruce or Cedar. The Hemlock is of
very rapid growth, averaging over 100 feet high and 13 inches in
diameter at 55 years of age.

Hemlock bears seed almost every year. The age at which seed bear-
ing begins varies with the amount of light in which the tree has grown.
Trees coming up in burns may bear when 25 or 30 } T ears old, but those
which have grown in the woods do not bear until much later. The
seeds, like those of most conifers, are winged and may be carried great
distances by the wind.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1.— Young Hemlock growing on Red Fir Stump.

Fig. 2. Hemlock, Second Growth. 12 to 14 Years Old, on Logged-
off Land, near Hoquiam, Wash.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Fig. 1.— Hemlock Seedlings growing on Rotten Wood.

Fig. 2.— Hemlock, Second Growth, 15 Years Old, on Logged-off Land, near

Hoquiam, Wash.

ENEMIES. 15

ENEMIES.
FUNGI (CONK AND GROUND-ROT),

Few Western trees maintain so continual a warfare to preserve exist-
ence as does the Hemlock. Its shallow root system is exposed to
ground tires and also renders the tree unable to withstand heavy winds.
The bark is thin, affording little protection against fire or other injury.
The tree is liable in old age to attack by several fungi, notably conk
{Truiint, 8 j>hi! and Echinodontium tinctorium) and ground-rot {Poly-
porii* sch wein itzii). The latter is the more prevalent, and makes long-
butting necessary in many localities. Little can be done as yet to
prevent these timber diseases, but a better understanding of them may
impress upon the lumberman the advisability of utilizing infected
timber before it is ruined. Both conk and ground-rot are active,
independent enemies of trees, and not, as is often believed, merely
followers of disease due to unfavorable conditions.

The " conk" or bracket seen on affected trees is the fruiting organ.
On its under side are innumerable minute spores or seeds. (PI. VI,
fig. 1.) These float through the air and lodge upon other trees.
Conk spores never enter through the bark, but usually through the
scars of broken branches. Once the spore is established, root-like
fibers grow inward, destroying the structure of the wood. When suf-
ficient nourishment has been extracted a small conk is produced,
which grows by annual layers on its under side, and in turn liberates
millions of spores.

Conk spreads rapidly, especially where the trees are badly scarred.
Storms aid the disease by breaking many branches. Trees which have
grown in an open stand in youth are apt to become conk} r because the
branches are large, and, when they finally die off, the}' leave wounds
which often do not heal over thoroughly. Damp climates and soils
are favorable to the growth of conk.

In ground-rot the fruiting organs are on or near the roots. Hence
the spread to other trees is usually brought about either by direct
infection of interlacing roots or by the carrying of spores in the fur of
burrowing animals. Hence ground-rot is apt to spread more slowl} r
than conk and to be confined to spots in the forest. On the other
hand, since the tender growing ends of roots may be infected without
first being scarred, the existence of one diseased tree is almost certain
to affect a group. Conk and ground-rot in Red Fir, Hemlock, and
Spruce are caused by the same fungi and ma\ he communicated from
one species to another.

It is evident, therefore, that the immediate cutting of diseased trees
is advisable, not only to save as much timber as possible, but in order
to prevent the infection of others. The merchantable stand of many
tracts of Red Fir in Washington has been reduced one-third by conk
in ten years. It would often be better policy to incur considerable

16 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

expense in lumbering- conky trees immediately than to cut only the
sound timber near at hand.

The occurrence of fungous diseases is quite variable, but probably 20
or 25 per cent of all Hemlock under 3 feet in diameter is affected.
Above that diameter the percentage is larger — possibly 50 per cent.
Red Fir suffers much less, except in central and southern Oregon,
where from 30 to 40 per cent is diseased. These estimates do not
mean that so large a portion of the standing timber is actually lost, for
often part of a diseased tree can be used, especially in the case of
ground-rot. when long-butting constitutes the only loss. (PI. VIII,-
fig. 2.)

INSECTS.

Dr. A. D. Hopkins, of the Division of Entomology, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, who has charge of the investigation of forest
insects, has kindly furnished the following information relating to the
insects of the Western Hemlock, mainly quoted from data published
by him:

Very little is known of the insect enemies of the Western Hemlock, or of methods
of preventing losses from their ravages. During my investigation in the Northwest
in the spring of 1899, under authorization from the honorable Secretary of Agricul-
ture and instructions from Dr. L. 0. Howard, some observations were made which
convinced me that the Western Hemlock has some very destructive insect enemies.

In my preliminary report on the "Insect Enemies of Forests in the Northwest, "
Bulletin 21, N. S., TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, the following references are
made to some of the insects observed:

On page 8, to an undescribed bark-beetle {Hylesinus sp. ), which was found at New-
poit, Oreg., to be quite common in recently felled Hemlock.

On page 9, to a trouble which had caused the death of a large number of Noble Fir
and Hemlock in the Cascade Forest Reserve near Berry, Oreg. While I was not able
to secure specimens of the insects which doubtless caused the death of these trees
owing to the fact that the trees had been dead too long, I concluded from the char-
acter of their work on the outer sapwood that it must be a Buprestid, possibly
belonging to the genus Melanophila. Many of the wounds made by the insect had
healed over before the trees died, thus presenting conclusive evidence that they
were attacked while living and probably while in a healthy condition.

In the vicinity of St. Helen, Oreg., investigations were made of a serious trouble
affecting the Hemlock and Red Fir, which proved to be similar to, if not identical with,
that affecting the Hemlock and Noble Fir in the Cascade Reserve. The work of appar-
ently the same Buprestid larva? was found in healthy, dead, and dying trees, and I
was fortunate in securing a few larva; ; also some nice specimens of healed-over gal-
leries. The latter presented conclusive evidence that the attack had been made on
healthy growing trees. It seems that the trees succumb only after several years of
successive attack by this insect. The extensive cutting of timber for fuel carried on
here does not seem to answer the usual purpose of attracting the insects away from
the living trees; therefore this is a problem of considerable interest, and, under more
favorable conditions for study, should receive attention in order to determine some
methods of preventing the ravages, which may prove to lie even more extensive than
at present.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Fig. 1 .— '"Conky" living Hemlock, showing Fruiting Organs.

Fig. 2.— Distortion of Trunk and Branches of Hemlock, caused by
Arceuthobium occidentale.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1.— "Black Check" in Hemlock Lumber, caused by Insect
Injury when Tree was small.

Fig. 2. -Hemlock, near Hoquiam. Wash., killed by Buprestid Larv/c.

ENEMIES. 17

In the vicinity of Ahlers (now Push), Oreg., 1 found a vast amount of dead Spruce
and Hemlock. The trees had been dead eight or nine years, and hence it was not
possible to personally investigate the cause of the trouble. I was particularly fortu-
nate, however, in obtaining from the postmaster, Mr. Herman Ahlers, a most inter-
esting account of the beginning and ending of the trouble as observed by him at the
time. (Page 10.) The work of this insect has not, I believe, been previously
recorded.

Mr. Ahlers says: "The worms commenced to attract a little attention here in 1889.
A few moths were seen in the fall of the same year. In July, 1890, the worms
appeared in great numbers, the first on the Hemlock, feeding on the base of the
leaves and cutting them off. When standing beneath the trees the droppings from
the insects and the falling leaves sounded like rain. When all of the leaves were
eaten from the trees the worms would let themselves down by means of webs, and
if they were not full grown would feed on the leaves of all kinds of shrubs and trees,
except the Douglas Spruce and Cedar. The worms were observed during July and
August and disappeared in the latter month, probably going into the ground to
pupate. In October the moths began to come out. They were grayish white with
dark markings on the wings. The wings spread about 1£ inches. The moths would
appear on the wing about 3 o'clock in the afternoon in enormous swarms around the
tops of the trees, resembling a white cloud. They continued to fly for about three
weeks, at the end of which time the ground was covered with the dead insects, and
the small streams were filled with them, in some places forming dams. The next
year, 1891, they attacked the Sitka Spruce and defoliated the trees, which died the
following fall or winter. * * * When the worms were coming down from the
trees the webs made the trees look as if they were covered with a grayish veil. The
worms were about 1 J inches long, the sides grayish green, with darker gray zigzag
markings on the back. When traveling they measured their way. This trouble
extended over parts of Clatsop and Tillamook counties, killing all the Hemlock and
Sitka Spruce in a belt between elevations of about 450 and 1,200 feet above tide. The
Douglas Spruce and Red Cedar were not injured." (Page 18. )

At the time of my visit much of the area covered by dead timber had been fre-
quently burned over by forest fires, so that in some places nearly all of the dead tim-
ber had disappeared, but in other places, where the conditions had not been so
favorable for the spread of the fire, the dead, barkless trunks of the trees were still
standing, the tops broken and the branches fallen, the scene presenting at once a
most impressive example of the destructive powers of an insect enemy of forests and
of subsequent devastation by forest fires.

While the caterpillars, which were primarily to blame for this destruction, have
not attracted attention in recent years, they will doubtless make their appearance
again in destructive numbers and attack the remaining timber, which is becoming
each year more accessible to lumbering operations, and hence rapidly increasing in
value.

On page 17 further reference is made to the Buprestid enemy of the Hemlock, Red
Fir, and Noble Fir:

"The evidence found in living, dying, and dead Noble Fir and Hemlock in the
Cascade Forest Reserve at Berry, Oreg., and in Hemlock and Red Fir along the
Columbia River in the vicinity of St. Helen, indicated that much loss of valuable
timber had hcen due to the work of Buprestid larva in the living bark of these
trees. The Conditions at the time were not favorable for a study of this class of
enemies or for a special investigation of the damage which seemed to he due to their
attacks. It is, however, a subject of special importance, which will demand con-
siderable attention in the future. Specimens of larv.-e collected from the hark of
living trees were provisionally identified by Mr. Schwarz as belon-rin.-r to the genus
22020— No. 33—02 2

18 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

Melanophila, probably M. drummondi, which is closely allied to M. fulvoauttata, a
destructive enemy of the Hemlock in West Virginia. An undetermined Cerambycid
bark-borer was found associated with the Buprestid larva? in Hemlock and Red Fir,
but the evidence pointed to the Buprestid as having made the first attack."

These bark-infesting enemies are again referred to by me in the Forester, Volume
VII, October, 1901, page 251, as follows:

"The Douglas Spruce bark-borer (Asemum nitidum Lee), the Western Hemlock
bark-beetle (Hyksinus tsiigse Hopk. MS.), and the Western Hemlock bark-borer
(Melanophila drummondi Kirby), infest the living bark, and either kill the trees or
cause gum-spots in the wood of the Douglas Spruce and Western Hemlock in Oregon
and Washington."

They are again referred to in the Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of
Agricultural Science, 1891, pages 66, 67, under the head of "Some Insect Enemies of
Living Trees," as follows:

"The Western Hemlock bark-beetle (Hyksinus tsug& Hopk. MS.) attacks the living
trees, and either kills them or causes defects known as gum spots in the wood of the
Western Hemlock. It is found at Newport, Oreg., and Port Angeles, Wash.

"The Douglas Spruce bark-borer (Asemum nitidum Lee.) is a. round-headed bark-
boring grub, the larva of one of the long-horn beetles. It was found to be a very
common enemy of the Douglas Spruce and Western Hemlock in western Oregon and
Washington. The healed-over wounds in the living bark cause gum-spot defects in
the wood, and the trees die from successive attacks.

"The Western Hemlock bark-borer (Melanophila drummondi Kirby) is a medium-
sized flat-headed bark-boring larva of a Buprestid beetle. This insect excavates
shallow winding burrows through the inner layers of bark of living Hemlock and
Douglas Spruce. It was observed from California to northern and eastern Washing-
ton and western Idaho. This is a very common enemy, killing the largest and best
trees or causing serious gum-spots in the wood of those which survive its attack."

BORING BEETLES.

Among the wood-boring beetles and fiat and round headed wood-boring grubs,
there are numerous species which cause more or less injury to the wood of living,
dying, and felled trees. The wood-boring beetles cause pin-hole defects and bluing
of the wood, which result in considerable loss to the manufacturer of lumber from
this tree.

Much of this loss can be prevented by removing the bark from the logs of trees
which are felled or remain in the woods for some time after the 1st of April, since,
as a rule, most of these insects will attack only trees and logs which have the
bark on.

It is the intention to make a special investigation during this summer to determine,
if possible, the exact species to blame for the defoliation of the Hemlock and Douglas
Spruce in western Oregon and Washington. Further investigation will also be made
of the other insect enemies of the Hemlock and other forest trees of that region,
the results of which will appear in a forthcoming bulletin of the Division of Ento-
mology.

A tradition around Grays Harbor accounts for the disappearance of
the insect that defoliates the Hemlock by affirming that the females
are wingless, and, as the immense numbers rapidly destroyed the food
supply, were unable to travel fast enough to reach fresh pastures
before the males had eaten everything clean. This story is of some
interest, inasmuch as there are species of Geomterid in which the

ENEMIES. 19

females have abortive wings, and a clue to the identity of the moth
is suggested. It is also quite possible that it is founded only on igno-
rance of the history of insects and the supposition that the moth and
caterpillar were of different sexes.

Were it possible to identify this insect, enough might be known of
its habits to warrant predictions of its behavior in the future; under
the circumstances it is possible only to say that another attack may
occur at any time. Aside from the direct loss, the destruction of so
large a body of standing timber creates, as suggested by Dr. Hopkins,
a tire trap, which menaces the forests of the surrounding region, and
it is quite possible that many of the former large tires of the coast
region were due to this cause. With so great a rainfall and a dense
green underbrush, the forest seldom, if ever, becomes dry enough to
burn without some unusual aid, yet there is abundant evidence that
the whole region *has been swept clean by fire. It is difficult in any
other way to account for the existing stand of old red fir, since it is a
species which requires open ground for germination.

BLACK CHECK.

In 1900 the larvae of an insect were discovered living in the bark
and apparently causing a serious injury known as black check.
Investigation showed this process in all its stages — the fresh wound,
with the grub at work in it, partially covered scars of a year or two
ago, and blackened spots buried several inches where they would be
opened if the log came to the saw. The presence of larva is always
betrayed by a flow of resin. Several specimens were collected and
were identified b} r Messrs. Coquillot and Schwarz, of the Division
of Entomology, as an unknown species of the family of Syrphidse,
genus Xylota. Since it is the habit of this genus to ia} T its eggs in
the galleries of bark beetles, it seems probable that this species obtains
entrance in the same way, although no evidence was found to show
previous occupancy of the burrows. As such insects are often second-
ary and not originally responsible for the injury which is attributed to
them, careful search was made for similar burrows not occupied by
the Xylota larva, but none were found in an investigation carried on
for several months. The most plausible explanation is that the female
deposits the egg in the gallery of some Scolytid which does little or
no damage to the tree, and that the attack on the wood is made by the
Xylota larva upon emerging from the egg. In the fall the larva
leaves the cavity and buries itself in the mass of pitch which has col-
lected outside the bark, there assuming the pupal stage.

The only forest region found wholly tree from this enemy was a
belt along the west slope of the Cascades, above an elevation of L,800
feet. If altitude proves responsible for this immunity, a similar
region in the Olympics will probably also he found free from attack.

20 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

The danger is lessened by thick bark, which renders it difficult for the
insects to enter. For the same reason large trees are safer than small
ones. They are frequently streaked near the center, but not toward
the outside, showing that when the tree reached a certain size its bark
became thick enough to protect it. (PI. VII, tig. 1.) As yet protec-
tive measures against this insect are unknown, but much disappoint-
ment might be prevented by an examination of standing timber for
traces of the insects. It is useless for manufacturers of cooper stock
or finishing lumber to buy infected logs. The presence of the larva
in the standing tree is always apparent to a close observer.

IMMUNITY FROM WHITE ANTS (TERMITES).

Experiments made in Manila indicate that Hemlock ma3 T prove of
special value in tropical countries where most woods are destroyed bj T
ants. Capt. George P. Ahern, chief of the Philippine forestry bureau,
states in a recent report that the master mechanic of the depot quarter-
master's shops, Mr. D. N. McChesney, tested several American woods
by thirty days 1 exposure to the attack of ants with the following
results :

Oregon Pine (Red Fir) Entered and eaten; a mere matter of time for complete

destruction.

"I Eaten more readily than Oregon Pine.

Spruce . . j j ^

California Redwood -> . , ,. . ,

^ ^•e w , •, ri j > . - Ants tried, out discontinued after slight effort.

California \\ lute Cedar / e

Hemlock Not touched.

Further experiment is now being made. Since the depredations of
ants are of great importance, not only in the Philippines but in other
tropical countries, a wood which will withstand them is certain of a
good market. Although Cedar and Redwood have the reputation
of being ant proof, they are not adapted to many uses for which
Hemlock is excellent.

For many years farmers have used Hemlock for the construction of
oat bins and similar receptacles designed to be rat and mouse proof.
It is said that the wood is distasteful to all rodents.

PARASITES.

A parasite {Arceuthobium occldentale) resembling mistletoe is wide-
spread throughout the Hemlock region. It grows upon the branches
and leading shoots, causing distortions and occasionally death. When
the branches only are attacked, the result is a disturbance of their
functions, and consequently a slow, sickly growth of the tree, which,
however, does not affect the quality of the timber. If, however, the
plant gets foothold on the leading shoot, a burl follows which persists

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VIII.

Fig. 1 .— Fasciation of Hemlock Branch, caused by Arceuthobium occidentale.

Fig. 2. Hemlock Stump, cut high to avoid Ground-rot.

THE WOOD. 21

throughout the life of the tree and not only ruins a log, but renders
the tree apt to be broken by the wind. (PI. VI, fig. 2.)

The mode of propagation of Arceuthobium is curious. Male and
female flowers are on separate plants, and the fruit, borne late in the
fall, is a berry containing a sticky seed. When ripe, but only in dry
weather, the berry explodes, throwing the seed several feet. If it
happens to strike the branch of the same or another Hemlock, its glu-
tinous covering enables it to adhere until it germinates and forces roots
through the bark of its host. Since this is possible only on the thin,
tender bark of } T oung wood, the older portions of the tree are exempt.
After a few years the parasite dies, but the distortion caused by it
remains and the branch dies or remains permanently diseased. Its
lateral growth usually stops and a fan-like mat of twigs radiates from
the injured portion. (PI. VIII, fig. 1.)

In a few coast districts and cool mountain valleys the Arceuthobium
renders the Hemlock practically worthless, and by covering the ground
with fallen trees and branches increases the danger from fire. The
enfeeblement of the trees doubtless also facilitates the entrance of
fungous diseases. Where the parasite is abundant, the trees die at
the top and their crowns become tufted and narrow. It does not gen-
erally occur in sufficient quantity to be of economic importance and
need not enter into a discussion of the use and future of Hemlock.

THE WOOD.

There is little similarity between the wood of the Eastern and
Western Hemlock. That of the Western tree is light, rather hard,
straight grained, tasteless, tough, and usually white, although often
reddish-brown in the interior of the tree. This discoloration is not
confined to the heartwood, but may extend into the sap, and is usually
darkest where it does so. It is a serious defect in timber which is used
forpulpwood, for finishing, or as a substitute for Spruce. Trees thus
affected are commonly knowm by lumbermen as " Black Hemlock," and
are frequently believed to be a different species. This does not refer
to the true Black or Alpine Hemlock, which grows only at great alti-
tudes and is not yet available for lumber.

In strength, case of working, and freedom from warp and shake,
Western Hemlock differs greatly from the Eastern species, whose
deficiencies in these respects are its chief drawbacks. Western Hem-
lock can not be classed in strength with Oak. lied Fir, or Lonerleaf
Pine, nor is it suitable for heavy construction, especially where
exposed to the weather; but it possesses all the strength requisite for
ordinary building material. It i- largely used in Washington for mill
frames.

When green. Hemlock contains much water and is very heavy; when
dry it is but little heavier than Spruce, in some localities no heavier.

22 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

The following table gives the weights of thoroughly kiln-dried Hem-
lock and that of four well-known woods, per cubic foot:

Table 1. — Weight per cubic foot <>f Hemlock and "(her well-known voods.

Pounds.

Western Hemlock 26. 95

Eastern Hemlock 26. 42

White Pine 24. 02

Sitka Spruce 26. 72

Red Fir 32. 14

The weight given for Western Hemlock is the average of 1,500 feet
B. M. taken from different Cascade camps at different times, and was
obtained by a member of the Bureau of Forestry. The weights of
the other species are quoted from the Tenth Census of the United
States, Vol. IX. The weight of Hemlock varies greatly with locality
and rate of growth, and in the tree itself.

DURABILITY.

The durability of this timber is still largely a matter of conjecture.
There are no recorded experiments, and it has until recently been
but little used. It is probable, however, that its durability has been
greatly underrated. Although not a hardwood, it has given satisfac-
toiy service in floors for several years. It is the general experience
that Hemlock skids, dams, and bridges in the woods are short lived,
but this may be in part because the wood is used unbarked and never
becomes dry. Green Hemlock is exceedingly sappy, heavy, and liable
to attack by fungi and insects. It is not adapted for use partly in the
ground. While the popular prejudice has prevented its extended use
for piles, a few instances go to prove that Hemlock piles last almost
if not quite as long as those of Fir. In salt water both stand until
destroyed by teredoes or limnoria; in fresh water Hemlock lasts about
ten years. Hemlock is, however, softer than Fir and more apt to be
crushed in driving, and is less able to withstand a great strain success-
fully. In ease of working it is between Fir and Spruce, taking a
smoother surface and cutting more easilv than the former. It is
readily turned, and the straight, even grain renders it free from
brashiness or tendency to chip. There is very little contrast between
the hard and the soft grain, and this feature, with the absence of
pitch, makes it susceptible of a beautiful finish.

DEFECTS.

The chief of these are "black streaks" or checks, black knots, and
the red heart already described. The latter is serious when the
infected wood is used for pulp, on account of the color of the product;
as lumber, it is undesirable for ornamental work and prevents substi-

THE WOOD. 23

tution for Spruce. It is, however, easily detected and the logs may
be scaled down accordingly. The black knots, due to a fungous dis-
ease occurring where shade-killed branches have improperly healed,
almost wholly ruin the lumber in which they occur. They are, how-
ever, confined mostly to trees near the coast. The black streaks,
which have resulted in bewilderment and consternation on the part of
those who have tried to manufacture finer articles of Hemlock, is a
widespread and serious evil for which no remedy is as yet apparent.
They are from three-quarters of an inch to 3 inches long, seldom over
five-eighths wide, and very thin. (PL VII, fig. 1.) The streaks lie with
the grain and become very conspicuous if the log is bastard sawn. In
boards cut across the grain they are less conspicuous, but kiln diying
is apt to open them clear through the board and to render the latter
useless where tightness is required. This is one of the chief objections
to the use of Hemlock for wooden ware, for which it is otherwise
excellent. This defect, varying greatly in degree, is widespread
throughout Washington and Oregon and necessitates care in the selec-
tion of Hemlock from certain localities. It is less prevalent upon the
higher slopes of the Cascades, while toward the upper limit of the
tree the defect does not occur.

Besides the three defects mentioned above, Hemlock lumber fre-
quently shows the perforations of boring beetles. This is, however,
usually the result of careless handling of the logs and is too local in
distribution to be quoted as an objection to Hemlock lumber generally.

USES.

Hemlock is best adapted for uses which require ease of working, a
handsome finish, and lightness combined with considerable strength.
It has been found suitable for flooring, joists and scantling, laths,
siding, ceiling, box shooks, turned stock, newel and panel work,
woodenware, and paper pulp. It is, however, for finishing and box
manufacture that it is most certain of appreciation when it becomes
better known. Taking a high polish, free from pitch, and, when
properly sawed, showing a beautiful grain, it is an excellent wood for
wainscot, panels, and newels. It is harder and less easily dented
than Kedwood or Cedar, and has a uniformly firm grain which on
diving does not show the minute corrugations characteristic of Red
Fir and other trees havino- a marked difference between summer and
fall wood. The St. Paul and Tacoma Lumber Company, of Tacoma,
has an office finished in Hemlock which attracts much admiration, and
builders of many stores and residences on Grays Harbor have selected
it as the most ornamental of Western woods for inside finishing.

Of greater economic importance, however, is the use of Hemlock as
;i substitute for Spruce and White Pine in the manufacture of boxes.
The scarcity of timber suitable fortius purpose is a cause of much

24 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

concern even in the West. The United States Geological Survey esti-
mates the quantity of standing Spruce in Washington at less than 6^
billion feet. Oregon contains much less. Spruce is in demand for
pulp as well as for box material and woodenware stock, and the avail-
able supply is going rapidly. Spruce logs are the dearest in the
market, and Spruce is not easy to get at any price.

Hemlock is not used for pulp in Washington. Probably half the
quantity now .sawed in that State goes into "Spruce" boxes, for the
manufacture of which it is admirably adapted in color, weight, and
tastelessness. The objections are that very thin stock is more apt than
Spruce to split and that on account of "black knots" only clear lum-
ber can be used. The latter objection is confined mainly to timber
from near the coast. With the failing supply of Spruce the necessity
for the general use of Hemlock becomes urgent, but so far few
manufacturers have had courage to use it under its own name, and
its substitution for Spruce can be carried on only to a limited extent.
Were it well understood that Hemlock boxes are practically as light
and tasteless as those of Spruce, a market for Hemlock would be
opened immediately. An evidence of the adaptation of Hemlock for
food packages is the fact that early settlers in Washington invariably
used it for hewn tubs in which to pack their winter butter.

After considerable experiment a large paper mill at Lowell, Wash.,
has decided unfavorably against Hemlock. On the other hand, it is
largel} T used in Oregon, where it is pronounced better than the East-
ern species. Since it is impossible altogether to avoid red-hearted or
"black" logs, the color is the chief objection and makes the use of
ground Hemlock pulp impracticable for the manufacture of better
grades of paper, although soda and sulphite processes bleach the wood
sufficiently unless it is unusually bad. The Oregon mills buy only
upland logs. Those from the coast are apt to be faster grown, of
coarser fiber, darker, and more frequently affected Ixy black knots.
Several camps in Oregon put in large quantities of Hemlock for pulp
alone and receive on an average $4.50 per thousand. The bark is fre-
quently given away on condition that it be removed from the log. It
brings $10 to $12 a cord at the tannery.

MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS.
PRESENT MARKET STANDING.

Except to a limited extent for pulp, Western Hemlock is at present
absolutelv without standing in the market. A few million feet are cut
annually, but are manufactured and sold under the name of Spruce or
Fir. It is a breach of confidence for the logger to disclose the name
of a customer to whom he sells Hemlock. It is never quoted in local
trade journals. Notwithstanding these facts, mill men almost uni-

MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS. 25

versally admit that they consider it an excellent timber and deplore
the conditions which prohibit its use. There are three main reasons
for this state of affairs:

(1) The prejudice of the consumer, who condemns Hemlock without
trial because of its name.

(2) Hitherto Fir and Spruce have been so cheap that there has been
no necessity for using- Hemlock.

(3) Hemlock is heavy when green and apt to give trouble in driving
and in ponds.

To overcome the prejudice against the name will be difficult, for to
introduce an unknown timber to the market usually requires years.
The practice of selling Hemlock as Fir when manufactured into floor-
ing, siding, and dimension stuff, and as Spruce in the form of box-
shooks and woodenware, has grave drawbacks. If detected, as he
frequently must be, the mill man must either lose a customer or bring
satisfactory proof of the excellence of the Hemlock. If he is able to
accomplish the latter, he might as well have done so originally and the
problem would thus have been solved. A mill which makes the substi-
tution also furnishes a weapon of revenge to rivals and to employees
with a grievance. It works a hardship to timber owners ; for, with
no recognized price for the timber, they are at the mercy of the mills.
Some individuals have decided that, as the name is the drawback, it
should be changed; and an attempt has been made to introduce Hem-
lock as Alaska Pine. This has been successful to some extent, and if
it had been attempted earlier might have solved the problem.

The second reason no longer exists. The standing timber of the
Northwest is going into the hands of large holders, either mill compa-
nies or speculative syndicates, and the da} r of the small logger, who
moved from claim to claim, taking only the best timber, will soon be
over. Under the old system, when the logger bought the stumpage,
he found it most profitable to take only the best Fir and leave a fair
merchantable grade uncut. An apparently unlimited supply enabled
him to continue this wasteful system. Under such conditions it was
not surprising that Hemlock was neglected. As a rule, it furnishes
less clear lumber than Fir, and when only the best of the latter species
was taken at a cost to the mill but little more than that of logging it,
the utilization of Hemlock was out of the question. It was never
cruised, and was loft as entirely unconsidered in the buying and selling
of timber land as though it did not exist. Now, however, it is becom-
ing more and more tin 4 rule for timber to be. cut by its owner, or, if
not, to be sold by the acre, and it is to the interest of the logger to cut
all he can from the land. In the case of Fir, lower stumps and shorter
tops are put on the Landing which would not have been looked at ten
or even five years ago. The owner also realizes that a log of Hemlock
used i- a Fir log saved, and tin 1 only question is how to dispose of it.

26 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

The third objection will be discussed under the head of lumbering.
There is little doubt that if Hemlock logs brought $5 a thousand, even
the heavy butts would find their wa} T to market.

ACCESSIBILITY.

A restricted home demand and remoteness from other markets are
the chief difficulties before the lumber manufacturer in Oregon and
Washington. Although timber is cheap, labor is high, and to sell his
lumber he must place the price so little above the cost of logging and
manufacture that the business is one of uncertainty and slender profit.
The result is that although lumbering is carried on upon an immense
scale, the State is being denuded of its timber with little profit beyond
the employment of the men engaged in producing the lumber. The
owner gets little for his timber, and the mill man receives an income
trifling when compared with his investment and risk.

The reason for this is the cost of transportation. The manufacturer
is obliged to depend upon the foreign cargo trade, the Eastern market
accessible by rail, and locally upon Alaska and California. The latter
is the dumping ground for side and common lumber which can not be
profitably shipped a long distance. The cargo trade is peculiar in that
the market is fairly stead} r and no great energy in pushing the product
is required, but it is governed very largely by ocean freight rates.
If grain be moving the lumber shipper will find it impossible to
charter a vessel. Owners dislike to load lumber, both because it is sup-
posed to be bad for the ship and because it often takes her to a port
which furnishes no return cargo. If, on the other hand, the prospect
for grain on the Pacific coast is bad, ships do not come there at all
unless under charters which fully recompense them. The effect is that
when rates are favorable the mills accept all the orders they can secure,
make charters regardless of possible forfeit through delay, and run
day and night, piling up immense amounts of nearly unsalable lumber.
When matters turn the other way, the mills may run for months at a
loss or with little profit so far as the cargo trade is concerned.

The following freight rates on lumber from the northern Pacific
coast ports to foreign ports, for September, 1899, and September,
1900, are quoted from the San Francisco Commercial News:

Table 2. — Freight rates on lumber from northern Pacific coast ports to foreign ports.

RATE PER 1,000 FEET, SEPTEMBER, 1899.

From Puget Sound to —

Sydney, New South Wales $11. 25 to $11. 75

Melbourne or Adelaide 13. 12 to 13. 43

Port Pirie, Australia 12. 50 to 12. 81

Freemantle, West Australia 15. 93 to 16. 25

Geraldton, West Australia 16. 25 to 16. 56

MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS. 27

From Puget Sound to —

West coast South America:

Pisaqua range $12. 81 to $13. 12

Callao range 13. 12 to 13. 43

Buenos Ayres 13. 75 to 15. 00

Shanghai 13. 43 to 13. 75

Kiaochow 13. 75 to 14. 06

Japan 12. 50 to 12. 81

South Africa 15. 62 to 16. 25

United Kingdom 17. 50 to 18. 12

Vladivostok 12. 50 to 12.81

RATE PER 1,000 FEET, SEPTEMBER, 1900.

From northern Pacific coast ports to—

Sydney, New South Wales $13. 12

Melbourne or Adelaide 15. 00

Port Pirie, Australia $14. 37 to 15. 00

Freemantle, West Australia 17. 50

Geraldton, West Australia 17. 81

West coast South America:

Pisaqua range 15. 62 to 15. 93

Callao direct 15. 31

Buenos Ayres 17. 50 to 17.81

Shanghai 16. 25

Kiaochow 17. 50

Nagasaki, Japan 15. 00

South Africa ' 18. 12 to 18.75

United Kingdom 21. 25

Vladivostok 16. 25

Rail trade with the East is affected by a more fluctuating market
and by vigorous competition, but is also regulated almost wholly by
the cost of transportation. Except for the business in spars and heavy
timbers, which are obtainable only on the Pacific coast, the eastern
limit of trade is that point to which Oregon and Washington lumber
can be delivered more cheaply than Southern or Northern Pine. The
rate on Fir lumber from Puget Sound and Oregon at present is -

Table 3. — Railroad, rates on Fir lumber from Paget Sound and Oregon, per 100 pounds.

Helena $0. 35

St. Paul 40

Chicago 50

St. Louis 52£

Pittsburg $0. 65

New York 73

Boston 75

Lumber other than Fir is, as a rule, 10 cents less per hundred
pounds. This at present applies only to Spruce and Cedar, since these
arc the only other kinds which are shipped.

With. the cost of logs at about $6 and of manufacturing at £:->.. "io per
1,000 feet B. M. these freight rates allow of little shipping of timber
from west of the Rockies, although there is a prospect that satisfactory
rates will soon lie granted to Missouri River points. The bulk of the

28 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

lumber shipped to these points is for building purposes, for which
Western Hemlock is thoroughly satisfactory. Since dry Hemlock
(rough) weighs but 2,240 pounds per 1,000 feet B. M., and Fir weighs
3,000 pounds, the theoretical saving in freight on kiln-dried grades
would be nearly one-fourth. The arbitrary weights accepted by the
railway companies for the various grades of Fir might conflict some-
what with this comparison, but the advantage for long hauls in a
decrease in weight of 20 per cent remains indisputable. The differ-
ence in the weight of air-dried stock of these two kinds may he less,
since Hemlock is slow to diy and heavy when green, but with proper
care it would still be considerable. Generally speaking, Hemlock lum-
ber will probably be sold in the Missouri region from $2 to $3 cheaper
per 1,000 feet B. M. than Fir on account of saving in freight alone.

LUMBERING.

With a few exceptions, it is only as skid timber that Hemlock enters
the logger's calculations. These exceptions are where mills log their
own lands, where small orders for box lumber or pulpwood are received,
or where the Hemlock is unusually good. In all cases it is put in as a
side product with a much larger quantity of Fir, for no logging is done
in approximately pure Hemlock stands.

So far as Hemlock logs can be quoted at all, they bring about $4.50
per 1,000 feet B. M. for the largest and clearest, no others being
handled. Fir of the same quality is worth $6 to $8. Most frequently
the Hemlock logs are not classed as Hemlock, but are put in with the
Fir and scaled at the option of the buyer as first or second grade Fir.
A few camps put in from four to five logs a day, cutting only those
they are sure will be accepted at the price of first-grade Fir. To sum
up, the demand is so small and uncertain that the logger handles Hem-
lock only in a desultory and unsystematic wa} r .

As a rule, there is little profit in logging on Puget Sound for less
than $5 a thousand, and it actually costs many Red Fir camps $5.50 to
deliver their logs at the mill. On Grays Harbor and the Columbia
River the cost is a little lower. It is idle to attempt to state definitely
the cost or profit of lumbering, since it varies from a net gain of $1 a
thousand to losses resulting in bankruptcy; but the following table
gives a rough average of the cost of lumbering 1,000 feet at Puget
Sound camps:

Table 4. — Average cost of lumbering per 1,000 feet at Puget Sound camps.

Stumpage Si . 00

Labor 2.50

Engines, line, and road 1. 00

Haul to mill 1. 00

Total 5. 50

Average price of logs $6. 00

Cost . 5.50

Profit 50

LUMBERING. 29

There is apt to be considerable variation in the items of expense.
Timber lying on streams may bring $1.50 stumpage; that accessible
only by rail is cheaper, but the cost of transportation often reaches
$1.50. Estimates for the cost of engines, line, and road vary from 50
cents to $1 per 1,000 feet B. M., but probably the latter figure is more
nearly correct. The scarcity of accessible timber makes private log-
ging roads necessary in most instances, and these cost from $5,000 to
$10,000 a mile. The expense for railroad per 1,000 feet B. M. depends
upon the amount of timber rendered available and is exceedingly vari-
able. The length of the haul and the character of the ground make a
considerable variation in the outlay for wire- rope. The following
table, based upon an actual pay roll, shows the cost of operations in a
camp which ships logs by rail and water to a distant mill:

Table 5. — Cost per thousand feet.

Labor getting logs to car $2. 50

Shipping to boom 1 . 30

Booming and rafting 08

Scaling _ . _ 035

Returning boomsticks 07

Mill discount 11

Wear on outfit 50

Total ; 4. 595

This is exclusive of stumpage, which in this instance was 50 cents
per 1,000 feet B. M., the timber having been purchased several years
ago. The same timber is now worth about $1.

It would thus appear that with Hemlock logs at $4.50, or even $5,
there is little profit in logging them. It is to be remembered, how-
ever, that a portion of the expense of lumbering, such as the cost of
a railroad, is necessary in order to lumber the Fir, and thus can not
be charged altogether against the Hemlock; and when, as is often the
case, no account was taken of Hemlock when the timber was pur-
chased, the cost of stumpage is also eliminated.

The difficulty of driving butt logs, because of their weight, deters
many lumbermen from handling Hemlock. This difficulty varies
greatty, and in many localities is of no importance. Hemlock near
the coast is heavier when green than the Hemlock of the uplands, and,
since river driving is also commoner there, gives the most trouble.
Were the demand regular and extensive, however, means of avoiding
this difficulty would doubtless be devised. A market for Hemlock
bark would probably make it profitable to peel the logs in summer,
and they would then dry out sufficiently to be driven successfully.
There would then, however, lie the danger from the boring-beetles,
which have alreadv been mentioned.

30 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

Hemlock, unless cut with the Fir, is usually lost. Fire is practically
certain to run through the slashings. The thin bark of the Hemlock
makes a severe fire fatal, and where a tree is only slightly scarred the
boring-beetle is almost sure to attack it. With its shallow root system
the Hemlock is also liable to be blown down when left unprotected,
and even the drying of the soil, due to increased light, often proves
fatal.

It is not uncommon for 5,000 to 25,000 feet of Hemlock per acre to
be left standing on land from which the Fir has been removed. Allow-
ing a stumpage value of only 25 cents per thousand feet, this represents
a loss of $1.25 to $6.25 an acre. Or, putting it differently, if Hemlock
gains a place in the market, it will raise the value of such timber from
$1.25 to $6.25 an acre. In the case of pure, or nearly pure, Hemlock,
a greater increase in value would be necessary to bring about the
same result, for there would be no logging of Fir to lower the cost of
logging the Hemlock. (PI. IX.)

VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK.

Scribner s scale has been used in all volume and yield tables in this
report. The universal custom of scaling at the small end of the log
has been followed, although the scale was originally intended to be
applied at the middle, where it is far more accurate. The prevailing
practice undervalues large logs, and it is probably for this reason that
the mills secured its adoption; but a return to the correct method here
would result only in confusion.

The data for Table 6, which gives the contents of standing trees in
board feet, were obtained by two methods, one based on the actual
logging practice and one on the possible merchantable contents of the
trees. The former included the scaling of several hundred trees as
they lay in the slashings, cut into logs but not yarded out. The logs
were scaled just as would be done by the camp or mill scaler, except
that the total contents of each tree were kept separate. In this way
the average contents of trees of different diameters and height were
found. The average diameter limit in the tops to which the Hemlock
was cut was 20.5 inches. In this way. from 10 to 30 feet of merchant-
able, and sometimes clear, lumber is usually left, which will undoubt-
edly be used when Hemlock is better appreciated. The same trees
were therefore also scaled to a point 16 inches in diameter inside the
bark, unless the crown extended below this point, Avhen the merchant-
able length was considered to end at the first large green branch.
Table 6 gives the result of both methods.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestiy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IX.

Fig. 1. -Second-growth Red Fir, 70 Years Old D

ryad, Wash.

Fig. 2.-Mature Red Fir, 380 Years Old; Young Hemlock beneath
Black Hills, Washington.

VOLUME AND YIELD, FIKST-GROWTH HEMLOCK.

Table 6. — Merchantable length and contents.

31

Diameter
breast-

Average
total

Merchantable length.

Contents.

high.

height.

In prac-

Cutting to

In prac-

Cutting to

tice.

16 inches.

tice.

16 inches.

Inches.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

Board feet.

Boardfeet.

20
21,

22
23

135
140
144
148

' 24
34
43
52

-7 40

350

465
580

37

550

24

152

44

60

680

700

25

156

51

68

800

825

26

159

58

74

920

955

27

162

63

80

1,040

1,090

28

166

68

84

1,150

1,230

29

168

71

87

1,260

1,365

30

171

73

89

1,360

1,490

31

174

74

91

1,450

1,605

32

176

74

92

1,540

1, 715

33

178

75

93

1,630

1,820

34

181

75

93

1,710

1,925

35

183

75

94

1,780

2,030

36

185

76

95

1,850

2,135

37

187

77

96

1,920

2, 245

38

189

79

97

2,000

2,360

39

191

81

98

2,080

2,480

40

193

83

101

2,175

2,605

41

194

86

103

2,280

2,735

42

196

89

106

2,400

2,870

43

198

90

109

2,550

3,010

44

199

91

112

2,730

3,160

45

200

92

115

2,940

3,320

46

202

93

119

3,175

3,490

47

203

94

123

3,430

3,670

48

205

95

126

3,680

3,870

49

206

96

131

*

3,920

4,090

50

208

97

135

4,155

4,310

In this table small trees appear to scale much too high in proportion
to the larger ones. This is because only unusually tall and good trees
of the smaller diameters are taken at all, and their average is relatively
high, while above 30 inches practically all sound trees are cut.

To the logger who profits only on the number of feet he sells.
Table 6 shows that his possible gain in feet, board measure, by cutting
higher into the tops is small, even assuming he has a market for tim-
ber of the quality he would obtain thereby. A mill cutting its own
timber would gain much more, for the inconsistency of the log scale
is such that the table does not show the actual difference in the amount
of wood saved by cutting to 16 inches. For example, a log 40 feet
long and lb' inches in diameter at the small end. scaled by theScribner
Rule, contains 396 board feet. If 10 feet are cut oil' the small end of
the log. allowing 2 inches taper for this distance, the log will be 30
feet by L8 inches, and will scale 400 board feet, an apparent gain of 4
feet by throwing away a log in feet by 16 inches. In sawinff lonff

32

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

logs this discrepancy is in part justified b} r the loss in slabs, but there
is no question but that on the whole a mill would gain more by cutting
to a 16-inch limit than is shown by Table 6. The average difference in
the merchantable length between cutting to 16 inches in the top and
cutting as it is now done is shown to be from 15 to 20 feet.

The following table gives, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the
total height, length of crown, and merchantable length of Hemlock
grown under cover and standing free:

Table 1.— Total height, length of crown, and merchantable length.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Under cover.

Standing free.

Total
height.

Length
of crown.

Mer-
chant-
able
length
cut.

Total
height.

Length
of crown.

Mer-
chant-
able
length
cut.

Inches.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

Feet.

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

59.0

67.0

75.0

83.0

90.0

97.0

104.0

110.0

116.0

121.0

126.0

131.0

135.0

140.0

144.0

148.

21.0
24.0
29.0
34.0
38.5
43.5
48.0
52.0
55.5
58.0
60.5
63.0
64.5
66.5
68.0
69.0

135.0
140.0
144.0
148.0

77.5
79.0
80.0

81.0

37
47
51
37

37

24

152.0

82.0

47

152.0

70.5

44

25

156.

83.0

51

156.0

72.0

51

26

159.

84.0

58

159.0

73.0

58

27

162. 5

85.0

63

163.0

74.0

63

28

166.0

86.0

68

166.0

75.0

61

29

168.5

86.5

71

169.0

76.0

68

30

171.5

87.5

73

171.0

76.5

73

31

174.0

88.0

74

174.0

77.0

71

32

176.5

89.0

74

176.0

77.5

74

33

178.5

89.5

75

178.0

78.0

75

34

181.0

90.0

75

181.0

79.0

75

35

183.0

90. 5

75

184.0

79.5

75

36

185.0

91.0

76

186.0

80.0

76

37

187.0

91.5

77

188.0

80.5

77

38

189.0

92.0

79

190.0

81.0

79

39

191.0

92. 5

81

191.5

81.0

81

40

193.0

93.0

83

194.0

81.5

83

41

194.5

93.5

86

196.0

82.0

86

42

196.0

94.0

89

198.0

82.5

89

43

198.0

94.5

90

200.

83.0

91

44

199.0

95.0

91

202.

83.

92

VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK.

33

The following- table gives, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the
percentage of the total volume of wood and bark of Hemlock, exclud-
ing branches, which is merchantable under present logging methods:

Table 8. — Utilization under present logging methods.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Mer-
chant-
able con-
tents.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Mer-
chant-
able con-
tents.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Mer-
chant-
able con-
tents.

Inches.

Per cent.

Inches.

Per cent.

Inches.

Per cent.

20

45 ,

31

65

42

73

21

49

32

65

43

74

22

53

33

65.5

44

75

23

55

34

66

45

76

24

58

35

66

46

77

25

60

36

67

47

77

26

61

37

68

48

77

27

62

38

69

49

78

28

63

39

70

50

78

29

64

40

71

30

64.5

41

72

The following table gives for Hemlock, on a basis of diameter
breasthigh, the length of that part of the stem, including the stump,
which will yield clear lumber, according to market specifications:

Table No. 9 — Diameter and length of stem yielding clear lumbef.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Yielding

clear
lumber.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Yielding

clear
lumber.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Yielding

clear
lumber.

Inches.

Feel.

Inch' a.

Feet.

Indict.

Feet.

20

27

27

46

34

56

21

31

28

48

35

56

22

34

29

50 i

36

57

23

37

30

51

37

58

24

40

31

52

38

59

25

42

32

53 .

39

60

26

44

33

54 1

40

61

Since the utilization of Hemlock where it occurs in mixture with
Fir is of chief importance at present, no consideration is given here
to the utilization of pure stands of mature Hemlock. The stand is
given for localities where logging is most active and represents differ-
ent types of the mixtures of Fir and Hemlock which form the larger
part of the commercial forests of the Pacific Northwest. The percent-
age of Hemlock in the merchantable stand varies from 23 per cent at
Orting to 59 per cent at Buckley. With Wilkeson these localities may
be taken as a fair Index to the stand of Hemlock on the western foot-
hills of the Cascades, where the altitude is from son to 1,500 feet and
the annual rainfall about 50 to 60 inches. The other places near which
measurements of the stand were made were Hoquiam and Elma in
Chehalis County, near the coast: Little Rock in Thurston County, and
22020 No. :;:', 02 — :'>

34

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

Matlock in Mason County. It will be noticed that the percentage of
Hemlock is highest on the coast and on the foothills, which is in pro-
portion to the increase in rainfall.

The data for estimating the stand given in the following tables were
obtained by the strip valuation survey method, which is in general
use by the Bureau of Forestry. Strips 1 chain (66 feet) wide and 10
chains long to the acre were run in several directions through the forest
to be estimated, and all trees on these strips were counted and meas-
ured at breastheight by calipers, or with a measuring tape, a separate
tally being kept for each acre. At Orting, for example, the camps of
the St. Paul and Tacoma Lumber Company were taken as headquarters,
and the valuation survey parties followed compass courses radiating
from the camps as a center, like spokes from the hub of a wheel. Since
eight of these strips make a mile, the 325 acres measured at Orting aggre-
gate a strip over 40 miles long and 66 feet wide. The contents of the
trees in these strips were computed from the volume tables, constructed
from the actual scale of felled trees. By this system the stand on large
areas can be determined with great accuracy and at small expense.

All trees 20 inches and over in diameter breasthigh were scaled,
which in most instances probably gives a trifle higher total stand than
would actually be cut at present, since trees less than 2 feet are now
seldom taken. No attempt was made to figure locally the cull due to
unsoundness, for it is so variable that only confusion would result.
All living trees 20 inches and over in diameter were scaled, whether
defective or not, and a cull of 20 per cent was deducted for crooked,
scrubby, or otherwise poor trees.

The number of acres actually measured in each locality is given at
the head of each table. It should be borne in mind that these were
carefully distributed over a large area and so far as the number and
size of the trees are concerned represent the stand with very fair accu-
racy. The actual merchantable yield in board feet is necessarily
dependent upon the standard in cutting. The yield of bark is com-
puted for merchantable Hemlock only and assumes that the trees will
be peeled to a point 17 inches in diameter in the tops.

Table 10. — Stand and yield per acre in typical localities.

WILKESON (400-YEAR-OLD STAND.)
[Average of 35 acres.]

Number of trees —

Average diameter
breasthigh of trees —

Maxi-
mum di-
ameter
breast-
high.

Yield of trees 20
inches and over

Snecies.

6 inches

and over

in diameter

breasthigh.

20 inches

and over

in diameter

breasthigh.

20 inches

and over

in diameter

breasthigh.

6 to 19

inches in

diameter

breasthigh.

in diameter
breasthigh.

Lumber.

Bark.

Hemlock

NO. 3

11.6

6.0

18.85

11.54

5.74

Inches.
30.0
66.0
52.0

Inches. ] Inches.

9.5 64

12.0 1 118

13.3 127

Bd./t.
20, 508
71,065
9,533

Cords.
4.53

Red Fir

Others

Total

97.9

36.13

45.0

9. 5 127

101,106

4.53

VOLUME AND YIELD, FIRST-GROWTH HEMLOCK.

Table 10. — Stand and yield per acre in typical localities — Continued.

BUCKLEY (410- YEAR-OLD STAND).
[Average of 131 acres.]

35

Hemlock . .
Red Fir....

Spruce

Cedar

Total

Number of trees —

Average diameter
breasthigh of trees —

Maxi-
mum di-
ameter
breast-
high.

Yield of trees 20
inches and over

Species.

6 inches

and over

in diameter

breasthigh.

20 inches

and over

in diameter

breasthigh.

20 inches

and over

in diameter

breasthigh.

6 to 19

inches in

diameter

breasthigh.

in diameter
breasthigh.

Lumber.

Bark.

Hemlock

84.34

10.37

6.12

20.48

10.32

3.7

Inches.
33.5
67.0
46.9

Inches.
10.3
6.7
11.5

Inches.

86
116
102

Bd.ft.
27, 361
67, 180
5,254

Cords.
6.46

Red Fir

Others

Total

100. 82

34.5

47.4

10.3

116

99, 795

6.46

ORTING (250-YEAR-OLD STAND.)
[Average of 325 acres.]

ELMA (280-YEAR-OLD STAND.)
[Average of 87 acres.]

61.7

15.3

.8

6.6

84.4

7.32

14.54

.54

4.15

28.1
46.0
55.1
38.0

10.3
14.1
12.4
13.4

26. 55

40.0

12.6

50
114
114
108

114

6,798

43,490

2,732

6,972

.".9,992

Hemlock

43.78
29.35
19.89

10.86
24.08
11.48

27.8
40.0
37.0

10.1
14.4
11.8

92
116

228

9,800

48, 080

9,809

2 06

Red Fir

Others

Total

93.0

46.4

37.0

10.9

228

07, 689

2 06

1.64

1.64

MATLOCK (260-YEAR-OLD STAND.)
[Average of 297 acres.]

Hemlock

Red Fir

47.73

37. 75
2.4

10.09

29.31

1.38

30.7
40.0
47.3

ll.l
16.2
11.3

56

11,485

58, 525

1,960

2. 53

others

132

Total

87.88

40.78

38. 2

12. 2

132

71,970

2. 53

LITTLE ROCK (390-YEAR-OLD STAND.)
[Average of 61 acres.]

HOQUIAM (400-YEAR-OLD STAND.)
[Average of 89 acres.]

Hemlock

16.2

28. 8

10.1

14.41

23. 85

4. 34

29. I
11.0

:;.".. (i

11.2
15.1
12.9

56
54

14,980
60,480

5.9(12

3 :;i

Red Fir

Cedar

Total

NO. 1

42. 6

36. 2

13.1

106

71,368

I]

Hemlock

50.2

1.18
1.6

10.09
9.77
l.dl
1.37

34.8

■ 56. :,

11.2
13.1

11. 1

18.8

54
120

112
114

18,972

59, 160

6, 194

5,870

8.42

Red Fir

Bpruce

Cedar

Total

62. 7

22. 24

50. 7

12.3

120

84,696

3 i"

36

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

For fairer comparison the merchantable stand of Red Fir given in the
tables was computed according to the average diameter limit to which
the Red Fir is cut throughout the State, and not, unless through coin-
cidence, according to local practice. Except in the case of pile or
spar camps and of a few small concerns supplying tie mills, there is no
great variation in the diameter limit to which Red Fir is cut on the
stump. Usually a forest stand in which most of the trees are not over
3 feet in diameter is not considered merchantable at all. A common
standard considers no tree merchantable which will not cut two 24-foot
logs, each of which will square 16 inches. The distance into the top
to which the tree is utilized varies greath', however. Since the cost
of logging, or of transportation, the quality of timber, or the demand
for logs of certain lengths, may influence the amount taken out of a
tree of a given diameter, it follows that each camp has its own standard,
and this standard may fluctuate.

The following table shows the diameter inside the bark in the top to
which Red Fir was being cut in several of the largest camps in Wash-
ington at the time they were visited by the agents of the Bureau of
Forestry:

Table 11. — Diameter limit hi tops.

Locality.

Buckley

Orting

Matlock

Elma

Little Rock
Hoquiam

Average

Diameter.

Inches.
31.8
17.5
25. 7
26.8
27.4
33.3

27.1

It is evident, from the above table, that volume tables made at Ort-
ing and Hoquiam would produce widely different results if applied to
the same stand.

LOGGED-OFF LANDS.

Hitherto the problem of dealing with logged-off land has been given
uniform treatment by Western lumbermen. It has been the custom to
sell the land which had value for agriculture for what it would bring,
especially for grazing, and to abandon the rest. Large tracts of
logged-off land have been sold for 40 cents an acre. Occasionally an
owner pays taxes on such property, but he is the exception, and often
has some peculiar motive for doing so, such as a desire to show a large
acreage. Very few expect to log a second time.

Excessive taxation in the United States is one of the greatest obstacles
to conservative forest management by private owners. In western

LOGGED-OFF LANDS.

37

Washington, cut-over lands, valuable for the production of timber
alone, are assessed at a value of from $1 to $5 an acre, at a combined
county and State rate of from 15 to 30 mills on the dollar. Assessors
may attempt to make a more reasonable adjustment, but are often pre-
vented from doincr so bv the demand of the State for a revenue from
these lands far out of proportion to that required from other property.
The State takes no account of the annual decrease of standing timber
from cutting, and continues to levy the same tax, although it must be
borne by less valuable land each year. In Chehalis County alone
10,000 acres are annually cut over, yet the tax rate is unchanged.
An attempt was made to get logged-off lands placed in a separate
lightly taxed class, and to have the burden divided among other classes
of property, but it failed.

Calculating logged-off land as worth $1 an acre, with the assess-
ment at $3 an acre, and the rate at 2 cents, the cost of holding a
quarter section of such land for fifty years would be $1,742, or $10.90
an acre. It is thus evident that the community offers little encourage-
ment to the timber grower. Under such conditions few men will hold
logged-off land. The effect of the system is to defeat its own end.
The property reverts to the State for delinquent taxes and, still con-
sidered worthless and wholly unprotected, it is burned and reburned
until it becomes a desert. The gain to the community would be much
greater were the land assessed at 50 cents an acre and the tax collected.
Statements furnished by the assessors of several timbered counties in
W ashington show the amount of cut-over land which has been abandoned
to be as follows:

Table 12. — Amount of logged-off lands abandoned.

County.

Chehalis

Clallam:

Hemlock

Other species

Clarke

Jefferson

King

Pacific

Pierce

Skagit

Whatcom

Assessed

value

of standing

timber

per acre.

Dollars.
K.00- 9.00

2.00
8.00
5. 00-10. 00
3. 00-10. 00
3.00-10.00
2. ">0- 5. 00
4.00-6.00
3. 00-10. 00
•1.00-10. <>o

Assessed

value of

logged-off

land
per acre.

Dollars.

2. 00

1. 00

■2.60- 5.00
1.00
2.60
1.26

2.00
(d)

■J. (Ml 111. IK)

Combined

State, county,

and special

tax rate

per acre.

Mais.

1-1

29

•r.
■j-

20
22-80
20-80

18
16

Logged-off
land aban-
doned.

l'i r a nt.
71

(')

20

(»)

(')
( d )
C)

21 1

» None nominally abandoned. Mu«-h delinquent

'' X •.

None at present. Indications that large amount will be abandoned.
■' Information minting.
•Very little.

38 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

The laws of Washington prohibit the sale of an} T State lands for less
than $10 an acre; therefore the large and increasing area of abandoned
lands, except the small portion which may become valuable for farm-
ing, must continue to be State property until it can find a purchaser at
$10 who is willing to take up the tax burden which could not be borne
even when the land was ottered for $1. This area must therefore
remain absolutely unproductive, nontaxpaying, and, on account of
fire, a menace to adjacent standing timber.

So deplorable a state of affairs entails far more than financial loss to
the State and its inhabitants. It is generally admitted that the exhaus-
tion of the mature timber of the United States is a matter of but one
or two generations, and that thereafter second growth must be used to
supply the natural needs. It is the Pacific coast region, with its warm
climate and heavy rainfall, which promises the most certain and rapid
return of logged-off land to forest, and to this region the country will
naturally turn for much of its timber supply in the future. With the
exception of the Government forest reserves, no provision is being
made to meet this demand, and for this condition of affairs unwise
taxation is largely responsible.

Over the larger part of western Oregon and Washington, Red Fir
is the tree which takes possession of burned-over land, and, if undis-
turbed, it does so almost immediately. It is at present the most val-
uable timber tree of the region, and its readiness to reforest denuded
land seems exceedingly fortunate. There are, however, certain regions
in which there is practically no reproduction of Fir, and here the market
future of Hemlock will fix the profit of growing a second crop. This
is largely the case along the coast.

The present practice is to cut all good Fir and Spruce and to leave
the Hemlock and only such Fir as is conky or otherwise unsound and
hence unable to play an important part in reseeding the lumbered area.
(PI. X, fig. 1.) There is, of course, the adjacent untouched forest,
which, under some conditions, would, b} T the aid of the wind, seed up
openings as fast as they might be made b}*- ordinary lumbering; but
here the Fir bears irregularly and scantily, and little seed is produced.
On the other hand, the Hemlock, which is left untouched in the
slashings and forms a large part of the neighboring forest, bears
abundantly every year. Furthermore, the slashing may escape fire,
in which case Fir seed finds an unsuitable seed bed and is shaded too
much by uncut Hemlock and underbrush. The final result under such
conditions is a dense stand of Hemlock, often some Spruce, but only
occasionally a Red Fir. (PI. X, fig. 2.)

It is not impossible that this result might often be somewhat modified
by judicious burning. While many loggers prefer, if possible, to
avoid fire altogether, there are two arguments for a contrary course —
safety in the future and a better chance for reproduction of Fir.
There remains little doubt that fire after logging greatly assists this

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate X.

Fig. 1 .— Logged-off Land, Buckley, Wash. Hemlock and Diseased Fir left

standing.

Fig. 2.— Hemlock left after Logging, Lnumclaw, Wash., showing Stumps of

Red Fir.

LOGGED-OFF LANDS. 39

species to reproduce successfully. If fire is to run, it is usually safer
to burn at that time in the spring when the slashing is inflammable
but the surrounding woods are still too wet to be in danger than to
allow a large area to remain unburned until the dry season, when lire
is sure to be destructive.

In the coast region, owing to the frequent rains, the burning of the
slashings as a precautionary measure is not so necessary as it is inland.
Therefore, before adopting it in order to facilitate the reseeding of
Fir, it should be ascertained whether it would not be more profitable to
give up Fir altogether and make the most of the Hemlock. To decide
this question a careful study of conditions on the ground is necessary.
The amount and condition of young Hemlock must be excellent in
order to make it worth preserving should there be a chance of obtain-
ing Fir by its removal. (PI. X, fig. 2.) A few half -grown trees are
of little value, for without shade they will not clear themselves of
branches. (PI. X, fig. 1.) An undergrowth of suppressed, misshapen
Hemlocks a few feet high, such as is often seen in dense timber, is not
apt to make a health}^ growth. In fact, the sudden advent of light
often destroys Hemlock which has grown in the shade. Where such
conditions prevail, and if the Fir in the vicinity can be counted on to
reproduce itself upon the logged-off area, it is unprofitable to adopt a
method favorable only to Hemlock.

It should be remembered, however, that, where the ground is cov-
ered by a foot or more of rotten wood and humus, fire ma}' kill the
young Hemlock and still not expose the soil sufficiently to encourage
germination of Fir. Even slightly injured Hemlock is worthless, for
it is almost certain to be attacked by borers. Blazes, fire scorch, and
scars from rigging, in fact, anything which deadens a small portion of
the bark, encourages their entrance. Other insects and parasites
should also be remembered. In a region where such enemies of Hem-
lock as black streak, borers, and Arceuthobium are prevalent, it
would be wise to destroy a fair growth of Hemlock for the sake of a
much younger stand of the more hardy Fir.

To sum up, where Fir is a poor seeder and where it is desirable to
prevent fire entirely from the first, there is little use in trying to get
anything but Hemlock for a second crop, and in such a case there is
nothing to do except to protect the slashing from tire. Where the Fir
left standing is vigorous enough to son\ freely and a fairly clean burn
can be secured, it would often seem the best policy to fire the slashing
in the spring. It is the purpose of this report, however, to deal not
with Red Fir problems, but with those of regions in which reproduc-
tion of Red Fir is impracticable. Assuming, then, that from observa-
tion the owner of timber land is satisfied that the second growth will
be chiefly of Hemlock, lie will naturally wish to know how long it will
be before it will produce merchantable timber, what its value will be.
and how much it will have cost him. In order to answer these ques-

40

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

tions as authoritatively as possible, a study of second-growth Hemlock
was made, the results of which are given in the following- chapter.

VOLUME AND YIELD, SECOND-GROWTH HEMLOCK.

The stud}" of second-growth Hemlock has so far been confined to
the coast region. The results obtained can also be applied with fair
accuracy to second growth upon the western slope of the Cascades,
where the rainfall is nearly as heavy as it is near the Pacific. The most
important localities selected as representative of coast conditions were
near South Bend and Willapa, in Pacific County, Wash. The former

200,

10 20 30 40

100 110 120

50 60 ?0 80 90
AGE -YEARS.
Fig. 3.— Diagram showing growth in height of second-growth Hemlock and Fir, on a basis of

diameter breasthigh.

contains a large tract of pure Hemlock, almost uniformly 55 years old
(PI. XI), which formed the basis for the study of pure stands. Near
Willapa were found, in addition to a pure stand of Hemlock, a typical
mixture of Fir and Hemlock about 75 years old, which illustrated the
behavior of the species when growing in mixture. A mixed stand
120 years old was found at Stella, Cowlitz County, on the Columbia,
and studies of similar stands were made elsewhere throughout the
State.

Although it is not difficult to find sufficient stands of second growth
to show what may be expected upon logged-off lands, there is no log-
ging in these stands. In order, therefore, to compute yield tables, it

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XI.

Pure Second-growth Hemlock, 55 Years Old, South Bend, Wash.

VOLUME AND YIELD, SECOND-GEOWTH HEMLOCK.

41

was necessary to create an arbitrary standard of merchantable size.
It was assumed that in fifty years, the probable shortest time in which
land now bare can be logged again with profit, timber will have gained
in value sufficiently to warrant the cutting of any tree which will yield
a log 20 feet long and 12 inches at the small end. A few of the trees
13 inches in diameter breasthigh will contain such a log, but it was
thought safer to take 11 inches as the limit. In the subsequent dis-
cussion of second growth, therefore, all trees 11 inches and over are
considered merchantable, and it is assumed that all timber between the
stump and a point 12 inches in diameter inside the bark will be utilized.

10

20

30

40

30

90

100

I/O

120

60 60 70

AGE - YEARS .

FIG. 1.— Diagram showing growth in diameter of second-growth Red Fir and Hemlock in pure stands

and of Hemlock in mixture with Red Fir.

Such material as piling or trap poles will be produced in less than
fifty years. l)u t earlier than this the trees will not clear themselves
sufficiently to make merchantable saw-logs, even if a few reach the
requisite size.

The growth of pure and mixed even-aged forests is very different.
In the former, Hemlock grows rapidly, with a normal relation between
diameter and height growth. The stand Is exceedingly dense at
first, and remains so longer than does a Red Fir forest on account
of the greater tolerance of the Ileinloek. The growth in height and

diameter is also slower than that of Red Fir. Where, however,

42

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

Hemlock comes in with Fir on denuded land, it is after the first few
years influenced by its more rapidly growing rival. The Fir soon
overtops it by a few feet, but the ability of Hemlock to live under
such conditions prevents it from being shaded out. The result is that
the height growth of Hemlock in mixture with Fir is as rapid as that
of a pure stand, and that the suppression is shown by a falling off in
its diameter growth. Figs. 3 and 4 show graphically the growth of
Hemlock and Fir and the growth of the same species, both when in
mixture and when in pure stands. These curves represent conditions
near the coast, and are somewhat higher than would be an average for

the State.

The following two tables give, on a basis of diameter breasthigh,
the total height, length of crown, and merchantable length of second-
growth Hemlock in mixture with Fir and in a pure stand:

Table 13. — Mixed stands, Hemlock and Bed Fir, 7.5 years old, Willapa.

I Diameter
ibreasthigh.

Total
height.

Length of
crown.

Merchant-
able
length.

Inches.

Feet.

Feet.

Ft et.

14

121

53.0

21

15

127

57.0

27

16

132

60.0

34

17

136

62.

42

18

139

63.0

51

19

142

64.0

58

20

144

65.0

64

21

145

65. 5

69

22

145

66.0

73

23

145

66.0

77

24

145

66.0

80

25

1

145

66.0

83 |

Table 14. — Pure stand of Hemlock, 55 years old, South Bend.

Diameter
breasthigh.

Total
height.

Length of
crown.

Merchant-
able
length.

Inches.

Feet.

F, it.

Feet.

14

107

50

24

15

109

52

29

16

111

53

35

17

113

54

42

18

115

55

48

19

116

56

53

20

117

56

56

21

118

57

59

22

119

57

62

23

120

58

64

24

120

58

66

25

120

58

66

VOLUME AND YIELD, SECOND-GROWTH HEMLOCK.

43

The character of three typical second-growth stands in Washington is
shown in Table 15, which is the result of surveys and measurements sim-
ilar to those made in mature timber and previously described. It will be
noted that in Willapa, where the mixture of Hemlock is most uniform,
the stand is unusually heavy for its age. This is in part due to the
fertility of the soil and a very heavy annual rainfall, but probably also
to the composition of the mixture, for a tract of given size can sup-
port a heavier forest of mixed Fir and Hemlock than of either species
alone. It is evident that, since the future yield of a second crop is
influenced by the mixture of species, knowledge of the rate of growth

Ct 60,000

O
CO

^50,000

30. 100 110 120
AGEL— YEARS

130 140 150

Fig. 5. — Diagram showing yield per acre in board feet mi a hasis of age of pure even-aged Hemlock.

with and without deduction for cull.

will not suffice to foretell it unless the composition of the mixture i^
known. It is useless, therefore, to make hard and fast tables of future
yield for indiscriminate application to the varying growths which
may occur after logging. For a pure stand the problem is much
simpler. Fig. 5 represents graphically the stand which may be
expected from pure even-aged Hemlock near the coast of "Washing-
ton. It includes second growth only and not those trees which may
escape the first cutting. The upper curve shows the yield without
allowance for cull; the lower curve, the yield after 20 per cent for
dead, diseased, scrubby, or otherwise unmerchantable trees has been

deducted.

u

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

Table 15. — Stand and yield per acre in typical localities.

STELLA (120-YEAR OLD STAND).
[Average of 155 acres.]

Number of trees —

Average diameter of
trees—

Yield of trees 14
inches and over

Species.

C inches 14 inches
and over and over
in diame- in diame-

14 inches
and over
in diame-
ter breast-
high.

6 to 13
inches in
diameter

breast-
high.

in diameter
breasthigh.

ter breast-
high.

ler ureasi-
high.

Lumber. > Bark.

10.8

17.1
.7

3.28
44. 36

.28

Inches. Inches.
20.9 8.0
28.6 ■ 10.9
21.1 9.0

Board fitt.

1,592

57, 312

146

Cords.
0.29

Red Fir

Total

,-,s. r,

47.92

28.3 8.9

59, 050 . 25

WILLAPA (90- YEAR OLD STAND).
[Average of 65 acres.]

Hemlock 42. 4

Red Fir .54. 6

Spruce 13. 5

Cedar .5

Total 111.0

13.9

45.1

6.7

.2

65.9

22. 1
25.5
26.5
25.3

23.9

10.0
8.2

8.4

8,146

39,344

6,430

140

1.64

54,060

1.46

SOUTH BEND (55- YEAR OLD STAND).
[Average of 131 acres.]

Hemlock

Spruce and Cedar

126.3
14.2

55.2

7.2

■

19.5
21.7

s.4
8.8

16,190
2,075

4.2

Total

140.5

62.4

20.6

8.6

18,265

3.6

UTILIZATION OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS.

Assuming that in the future there will be a considerable area of
second-growth Hemlock, the question arises, at what age can it be
most profitably logged and how shall the forest be perpetuated? This
can be discussed only in a general way, for it depends greatly upon
the development of Hemlock as a commercial timber and upon the uses
to which it is put. The tables in this report show that small sticks,
such as are suitable for trap poles, may be cut in fort}" years, and that
in fifty years logs will be produced which would be considered of fair
size in the East to-day. In this time, however, according to fig. 5,
there will be only a little over 2,000 feet to the acre, which even, allow-
ing a stumpage of $1 per 1,000 feet, is an insignificant amount. Con-
sidering it as a fifty-year investment, there will have been a mean
annual production of about 40 board feet an acre. At the end of sixty
years the stand will be 22,000 feet, or a mean yield of 366 feet. The
annual increment increases to 471 feet for a seventy-year period and
reaches 500 feet at eighty years. At eighty -five it is but a few feet

UTILIZATION OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS. 45

more, and from then on it decreases steadily in rate of production. It
appears, therefore, that the greatest production of wood can be secured
by cutting second-growth Hemlock when it is about 80 } T ears old.

However, there are other points which weigh in the consideration
of the cutting age. If it is intended to keep the land perpetually in
forest, provision must be made for a third crop, and it will not do to cut
at a time when natural reproduction is doubtful. Early in the life of
an average second-growth Hemlock stand there are many small trees
which gradually become shaded out and killed b}^ their more vigorous
neighbors. If no cutting is done before the end of eighty years, most
of these will have died and rotted, and if everything down to 14 inches
is cut there will be few trees left to form part of a third crop. If the
cut is made at sixt} r years, there will be a good nucleus left for a third
crop, but the cut will be small and the timber inferior. The most
profitable plan seems to be to wait a few years longer and to trust to
natural seeding if a third crop is desired. At first, because of the
dense shade, there is little or no reproduction beneath second-growth
Hemlock. However, after about sixty years or more, according- to
the density, the Hemlock bears seed and the gradual thinning out of
the stand admits sufficient light for the germination and growth of
seedlings. If the forest is cut when 80 years old, many of the seed-
lings will live, and with those which spring up in the slashing will
form sufficient basis for another stand. There will also be many fair-
sized trees left standing, some of which, at least, will not be thrown by
wind. So far as can be judged at present, the cutting age or rotation
of largest } T ield need not be abandoned in order to insure reproduction.

The rotation of greatest financial profit still remains to be reckoned,
for this is not necessarily identical with that of the greatest wood pro-
duction. It is determined by the period at which the value of the crop
represents the highest interest on the capital invested. Owing to the
uncertainty of taxation and of the future value of Hemlock stumpage
the calculation can only be tentative.

The actual sale value of denuded land in the coast counties of Wash-
ington can safely be placed at not over $1 an acre, or $160 for a quar-
ter section. The land will probably be assessed at about $3 an acre
and taxed at 2 cents on the dollar, which is <> cents an acre, or $9.60
for the quarter section.

Were an owner to sell his land for $160 as soon as it was logged, and
deposit the money in a savings bank at 3 per cent compound interest,
adding annually the sum which he would pay for taxes had he held
the land, the total amount to his credit at any given period would
represent the cost of holding the land for a second crop during the
same time. The calculation of this amount and its comparison with
the value of the land and crop is found in Table 16. It illustrates

46

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

strikingly the possible loss or profit in holding logged-off land,
assuming, of course, that the premises of taxation and stumpage are
correct. The table shows that 70 years is the most profitable age at
which to cut if stumpage is figured at either 75 cents or $1. At 50
cents the whole transaction is a losing one, and the longer the rotation
the greater the loss.

Table 16. — Financial result of cutting one quarter section of Hemlock after 60, 70, and 80

years.

Time
between
cuts, or
rotation,

years.

Value of land and crop at
end of rotation.

Proceeds of

$9.60 de-
posited an-
nually, at
3 per cent
compound
interest.

Gain by holding
land.

Loss by
holding

land,

stumpage

$0.50.

Stumpage.

Stumpage.

81.00.

80.75.

• 80.50.

$1.00.

SO. 75.

60
70
80

$3, 792
5,440
6,560

82, 884
i, 120
4,960

$1,976
2,800
3,360

$2,451.40
3,304.53
4,681.80

$1, 340. 60
2, 135. 47
1,878.20

$432. 60
815. 47
278. 20

$475. 40

504. 53

1,321.80

The largest profit shown above, that of a seventy-year rotation with
a selling price of $1 stumpage, represents about 4. 5 per cent compound
interest upon the investment.

It should be clearly understood that these statements of profit are
purely tentative, based upon tax rates and stumpage values which can
not be foretold at present. They are believed to be conservative.
The individual can, if he desires, make similar calculations upon such
premises as seem in his judgment more probably correct.

From the foregoing pages it may be seen that the largest sustained
yield is secured by cutting every eighty years, but that the interest on
the invested capital which the crop represents is apparently highest at
the end of seventy years. There still remains to be reckoned the
bearing of age on the quality of the timber. This and many other
questions concerning the future of second growth depend much upon
circumstances impossible to foresee. It appears now that it will be
about seventy-five years before the second crop can be logged to the
best advantage. This does not mean that a considerable amount may
not be cut earlier. And even if a long rotation is decided upon, earlier
thinning would be beneficial if it could be made profitable. The dif-
ficulty lies in cutting small quantities and in disposing of small mate-
rial which, at present at least, has no place in the market except
possibly as trap poles.

HEMLOCK LEFT AFTER LUMBERING.

In the calculation of returns from second-growth Hemlock ho
account has been taken of small trees left standing after the logging
of the old stand. If the slashing is burned these will be destroyed;
if not, there wih be left for a future crop a number which depends
upon the character of the virgin forest and upon the intensity and

UTILIZATION OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS.

47

destructiveness of the lumbering. This number varies so greatly that
it is futile to attempt a general estimate of it. It may, however,
readily be ascertained on the ground, and the forester, by finding the
rate of growth of the trees under the new conditions, can predict
either how long it will be before a given amount can again be logged
or how much can be cut after a given time.

Large tracts now being logged near Buckley, Elma, and Hoquiam
were selected as examples. It was assumed that all trees above 20
inches were cut for logs and everything between 16 and 20 inches went
into skids. The number of trees between 4 and 16 inches which would
be left on an acre, if care was taken to destroy as few as possible, was
estimated, and these were allowed a conservative diameter growth of
an inch in five years for the next fif t}^ years. Their contents in board
measure (cutting to 14 inches) at the end of twenty-five and fifty
years were then computed, and 25 per cent was deducted for trees
which might die, blow down, or prove worthless for lumber. The
results are here shown:

Table 17. — Yield per acre from Hemlock left in lumbering.

Locality.

Buckley

Elma

Hoquiam

Average

Number

of trees

between

4 and 16

inches

left on

acre.

80
52
36

Yield per acre at the
end of—

Twenty-
five years.

Board feet.
3,285
1,640
1,745

Fifty
years.

Board feet.
14,190
8,320

6,875

56

2, 223

9, 762

Hoquiam shows less than the normal number of trees for that part of
the State, because of an insect attack several years ago, which destroyed
many } r oung trees. The figures for Buckley are included to produce
a fairer average, although, as a matter of fact, this is a region in which
Fir reproduction is feasible, and the burning of slashings is probably
better policy than the protection of small Hemlock.

Since a few seedlings and a few vigorous trees which were less than
4 inches in diameter at the time of logging will become merchantable
in fifty years, the yield will be somewhat more than the 9,762 feet
indicated above. The addition on this account will probably bring the
total to about 11,000 feet an aero, or 1,760,000 to the quarter section.
At $1 a thousand this will be equivalent to a simple interest of 8.9 per
cent on an investment of $1 an acre for the land and (5 cents an acre
annual tax tor fifty years.

The above calculations indicate :i larger yield after fifty } r ears than
does tig. 5 for seedling second growth alone. Furthermore, the existence

48 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

of a few small trees does not preclude the development of a seedling stand
also; therefore, the true second crop will consist of both and be greater
than either alone. It will not be equivalent to a combination of both,
for the ground and light demanded b} r the trees which are left standing
will be denied to the seedlings. The exact manner in which this rivalry
will be adjusted depends upon the number of trees left standing, the
condition of the ground for germination of seeds, and numerous other
factors which require a study of each case before even an approximate
estimate is possible. On the other hand, there is no doubt that if a
fair stand of Hemlock remains on cut-over land the yield given by tig. 5
will be increased by from 8,000 to 12,000 feet at the end of fifty years
and by an indefinite amount after that time. This is assuming a nearly
pure Hemlock reproduction. No attempt will be made to discuss Red
Fir seedling growth under such conditions, for it is not apt to appear
to any important degree unless there has been lire enough to destroy any
small Hemlock which survives logging.

If it is desired to utilize small Hemlock in a future cutting, care
should be taken not to injure it unnecessarily during logging. Prom-
ising trees need not be cut for skids where poor ones will suffice, and
it should be borne in mind that scars caused by rigging, especially in
setting strap leads, are almost certain to ruin young trees. Many trees
ordinarily destroyed might be preserved at no additional expense by
careful swamping, yarding, and falling.

BARK.

Although thinner than that of the Eastern species, the bark of the
Western Hemlock is exceedingly rich in tannic acid. This has long
been known to the trade, and several experiments have been made with
a view to the establishment of extract works in the Northwest. A
plant was actually started near South Bend, Wash., in 1893, but, owing
to insufficient capital, to the general financial depression of the period,
and, it is said, to the opposition of Eastern bark interests, it was soon
shut down. The promoters claim, however, to have demonstrated the
feasibility of a similar enterprise under more favorable conditions.
In Oregon, where Hemlock is logged for paper pulp, the bark is util-
ized by local tanneries and brings from $8 to $12 a cord. The claim
is made that it produces a lighter leather than Eastern bark.

So little use is made of the bark that it is difficult, in comparing it
with that of the Eastern Hemlock, to determine to what degree its
thinness is compensated for by its superior quality. The bark of the
Eastern tree averages about 10 per cent tannin. The few available
analyses of Washington Hemlock bark vary with locality and through
absence of system in selecting samples, but unite in allowing about. 16
per cent. Samples collected in Washington by the Division of Forestry

BARK.

49

were submitted to the Division of Chemistry of the Department of
Agriculture and the following results were obtained:

Table 18. — Analyses of bark of Western Hemlock from Washington.

Moisture

Total solids

Soluble solids

Reds

Nontannins

Available tannins

W ly fiber by difference

No. 21272.

Little

Rock,

Thurston

County.

Per cent.

9.87

14. 32

13. 78

.54

4.01

9.77

75. 79

No. 21273. No. 21274.

Ashford, Enumclaw,

Pierce King

County. County.

Per cent.
10. 55
24. 03
22. 59
1.41
6.59
16.00
65. 42

Per cent.
10.01
22. 16
20. 58
1.58
5.72
14.86
67.83

In his report upon these analyses Dr. Wiley, Chemist of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, says:

Nos. 21273 and 21274 are especially remarkable on account of being so rich in
tannin. These barks are all of superior quality, especially the two just mentioned.

These two samples probably represent fairly the bark of the west-
ern slope of the Cascades, Enumclaw being about 1,000 feet and Ash-
ford 2,000 feet above sea level. v The Little Rock sample is apparently
inferior, but can scarcely be regarded as representative, since it was
taken from a fallen tree which had been exposed to heavy rains for
several weeks. It is not improbable that a fresh sample would have
compared favorably with the other two specimens.

In Hide and Leather, of June 24, 1893, appear the results of tests
made by H. G. Tabor, manager of the American Extract Works, of
Port Allegheny, Pa., which are as follows:

Table 19.— Comparative analyses of Hemlock bark from Washington, Pennsylvania, and

Quebec.

Washing-
ton.

Pennsyl-
vania.

Quebec.

Tannic acid

R r cent

17.01
6.40
i 16

7.".. IK)

/'/ / C< nt

13.28
7.52
3. 18

75 72

Per cent.

10.16
1 56
1 . 92

83.36

Non tannin

Reds

Another analysis richer in tannin than cither of the preceding was
furnished by Professor Fiebing, of Milwaukee, to persons who con
templated starting an extract factory near the coast in southwestern
Washington. He found the percentage of tannin in the two samples
sent him to be L7.8 and 20.1, respectively. Allowing 2.240 pounds to
22< >2t >— No. : ;: ! — ( 12 4

50 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

the cord, and assuming an average percentage of 10 for Eastern and 16
for Western bark, the quantity of tannin in each would be as follows:

Table 20. — Yield of tannin per cord of Western and Eastern bark.

Pounds.

Washington bark 358. 4

Eastern bark 224.

Difference 134. 4

VOLUME AND YIELD.

Although the cord is used as a standard of measure for bark, it is
usually sold by weight, in order to avoid variation due to loose piling.
Throughout the East 2,240 pounds are usually called a cord, although
in some places 2,000 pounds are accepted. It was impossible to secure
any yield tables based on actual practice in the regions covered by this
report; therefore the thickness of bark at various heights was meas-
ured on all trees scaled, and the amount in cubic feet produced by the
average tree of given diameter, and also by the acre, was computed.
These figures were then converted into long and short cords on a basis
of 66.6 cubic feet to 2,000 pounds and 77 cubic feet to 2.240 pounds.
This was done separately for mature and second-growth timber, assum-
ing that in the latter only the merchantable log length would be peeled,
and that in the former all bark would be taken from the stump to a
point where the tree is 12 inches in diameter. The following table
gives, on a basis of diameter breasthigh, the volume of bark and the
number of trees required to make a cord of 2,000 pounds and of 2,210
pounds.

Table 21 . — Volume of bark per tree and trees per cord.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Cord of 2,000 pounds.

Cord of 2,240 pounds.

Bark per
tree.

Number of

trees per

cord.

Bark per
tree.

Number of

trees per

cord.

Inches.

Cords.

Cords.

13

0.03

38.5

0.02

45.4

14

.03

33.3

.03

40.0

15

.04

26.4

.03

31.2

16

' .05

21.8

.04

25.

17

.06

17.0

.05

20.0

18

.07

14.1

.06

16.3

19

.09

11.8

.07

13.5

20

.10

9.8

.09

11.3

21

.12

8.3

.10

9.7

22

.14

7.1

.12

8.3

23

.16

6.2

.14

7.2

24

.18

5.5

.16

6.3

25

.21

4.8

.18

5.6

26

.23

4.3

.20

5.0

27

.26

3.9

.22

4.5

28

.29

3.5

.25

4.0

29

.32

3.2

•27

3.6

BARK.

51

Table 21. — Volume of bark per tree and trees per cord — Continued.

Diameter
breast-
high.

Cord of 2,000 pounds.

Cord of 2,240 pounds.

Bark per
tree.

Number of

trees per

cord.

Bark per

tree.

Number of

trees per

cord.

Inches.

Cords.

Cords.

30

0.25

2.9

0.30

3.3

31

.38

2.7

.33

3.1

32

.41

2.5

.35

2.8

33

.44

2.3

.38

2.6

34

.47

2.1

.41

2.4

35

.51

2.0

.44

2.3

36

.54

1.9

.47

2.1

37

.58

1.7

.50

2.0

38

.61

1.6

.53

1.9

39

.65

1.6

.56

1.8

40

.68

1.5

.59

1.7

41

.72

1.4

.62

1.6

42

.76

1.3

.66

1.5

43

.80

1.3

.69

1.4

44

.84

1.2

.73

1.4

45

.88

1.1

.76

1.3

46

.92

1.1

.80

1.3

47

.97

1.0

.84

1.2

48

1.01

1.0

.87

1.1

49

1.05

1.0

.91

1.1

50

1.10

.9

.95

1.1

Where bark is peeled from trees cut for lumber it is frequently
the custom to reckon the yield by the amount produced to the thou-
sand feet of logs, board measure. In the East half a cord to the
thousand is considered a fair average, and is equivalent to about 112
pounds of tannic acid. On the Pacific coast the thinness of the bark
and less economical logging practices unite t'o reduce this proportion,
and a quarter of a cord to the thousand is all that can be relied on, but
this will average 90 pounds of tannin. The yield per acre is necessa-
rily exceedingly variable. For example, Table 11 represents regions
where Hemlock forms a given per cent of the total stand of mature
timber. Table 16 is for second growth. No figures were obtained for
pure, mature Hemlock. The examples given compare favorably with
the yield of pure Hemlock land in the East, where the best seldom
exceeds 20 cords an acre and the average is about 5. Good authorities
place the average crop for Pennsylvania at 7£ cords, for New York 4,
and for Maine only 3 cords per acre. Taking a pure 55-year-old stand
at South Bend, Wash., as a basis, together with cruising* and meas-
urements in other young timber, it lias been possible to figure with
approximate accuracy the yield which may be expected from an aver-
age well-stocked acre of pure young Hemlock at a given age. The
results are shown in Table 22. Only trees 14 inches and over in
diameter breasthigh have been considered, and these peeled to a point
L2 inches in diameter in the tops.

52 THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

Table 22. — Yield of bark per acrt from pure second-growth Hemlock.

Age of stand.

Allowing 2.000 pounds to 1 cord.
Allowing 2.240 pounds to 1 cord.

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

years.

years.

years.

years.

years.

years.

years.

Cords.

Cords.

( 'ords.

Cords.

Cords.

Cords.

' ords.

2.5

6.8

9.2

10.1

11.5

12.1

12.3

2.2

5.9

7.9

9.1

9.9

10.4

10.8

120
years.

Cords.

12.9
11.1

Toward the upper limit of the Hemlock, seldom below 2,400 feet
above sea level, its bark often strikingly differs from that of the tree
at lower elevations. It is exceedingly thick, often 2 inches, and is
deeply furrowed. (See PI. XII.) No volume or yield tables were
made for this upland form, but it is probable that trees would contain
twice as much bark as those of corresponding size at lower elevations.

HARVESTING.

In the East, where the methods of harvesting bark have developed
into an established process, the usual peeling season extends from May
to August, although the bark peels easiest from the first of June to
the middle of July. Where bark alone is the object, a peeling crew
consists of three men — faller. litter, and spudder; but where the cut-
ting is primarily for lumber, the first might be considered one of the
logging crew. The fitter trims oil' branches, rings the bark at inter-
vals of -t feet, and slits each section lengthwise. The spudder peels
the bark with a flattened bar and spreads it on the ground with the
flesh, or inner side, up. After it has cured in the sun for five to ten
days it is carefully piled, exterior side uppermost, to complete the sea-
soning process, which, unless the season is wet or the bark is piled in
a shady place, requires but two or three months. It is highly desirable
to remove the bark from the woods as soon as it is seasoned, for if
left until winter it becomes covered with snow and ice, loses a consid-
erable part of its tanning property, and curls badly; but in regions
where roads are bad in summer it is often left to be taken out on sleds
after snowfall.

It is evident that the wet climate of Oregon and Washington will
prove somewhat detrimental to the economic handling of bark.
Unfortunately, the heaviest rain occurs in the Hemlock regions. The
thinness of the bark, the greater care required to cure properly, and
the higher price of labor will tend to make the cost of production per
cord greater than it is in the East. On the other hand, Hemlock
stumpage is low, the bark is richer, and, since the roads are best in the
fall, there need be no difficulty in getting it out when it is in the best
condition.

Bui. 33, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XII.

Fig. 1. -Western Hemlock, Cas.cade Mountains, Washington. Alti-
tude, 2,500 Feet, showing Thick, Rough Bark of Mountain Form.

Fig. 2.— Western Hemlock, Cascade Mountains, Washington. Alti-
tude, 3,000 Feet, showing Thick, Rough Bark of Mountain Form.

BARK. 53

On its arrival at the works the bark usually contains from 8 to 12
per cent of water. Fresh bark does not } T ield the acid readily. Hence
when possible it is stored until fully cured, usually between one and two
years. It is highly important to keep it well protected from rain, for
it leaches easily and is soon ruined. For the same reason, bark from
logs which have been towed or driven is of little value. Salt water
ruins it entirely. If well cared for, nearly all the tannin in the bark is
available. A cord of Eastern bark yields from 400 to 430 pounds of
extract, which is sufficient to tan from 200 to 225 pounds of sole
leather, or a trine more of upper leather.

At present the available supply of hides in the Pacific Northwest is
insufficient to support a tanning- industry of any great proportions.
It is probable that before there is a home market for any considerable
quantity of bark it will be required to supply tanneries in the East,
where complaint is already made of an inadequate supply. If this
proves true, the product must be shipped in a condensed form and
considerable capital will be required to develop the industry.

EXTRACT.

The process of making the extract is as follows: The bark is ground
and placed in wooden vats, where it is steeped until the acids are
removed. The resulting liquor is then evaporated in a vacuum at a tem-
perature of about 180° F. until it is reduced to a heavy, dark colored fluid
weighing about 10 pounds to the gallon and containing nearly all the
tanning properties of the bark. Assuming the unsteeped bark to have
10 per cent of tannic acid, 100 pounds of it would produce about 40
gallons of 20° liquor, which, upon analysis, would show about 2£ per
cent of tannin. The extract is usually shipped in 500-pound barrels
and brings about 2£ cents a pound.

While the production of ground tan bark for local use is a simple
process, the successful manufacture of extract requires even more
expensive machinery than the manufacture of lumber. In the East,
where machinery is cheaper than on the Pacific coast, a 10-barrel
plant costs from $15,000 to $20,000. The leach house is much like
that of a tannery, but an evaporating plant is also required in which
all vats and pipes must be copper or brass lined, and this part of the
establishment representsa large proportion of the entire expense. It
is also customary to conduct a barrel factory in connection with the
plant. From these considerations, it is apparent that extract works
will be built only where there is certainty of a sustained bark supply
and that, owing to the cost of transportation. Hemlock will probably
be more valuable where it occurs in sufficienl quantity to support a
factory than in regions where the bark must be sent a distance to
market.

54

THE WESTERN HEMLOCK.

A LIST OF THE TREES OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON, WITH

SOME IMPORTANT SHRUBS.

Common name.

Sugar Pine

Western White Pine

White-bark Pine

Bull or Yellow Pine

Jeffrey Pine

Scrub Pine

Lcdgepole Pine

Knobcone Pine

Tamarack or Larch

Sitka or Tideland Spruce

Engelmann Spruce

Brewer Spruce

Western Hemlock

Black or Alpine Hemlock

Red or Douglas Fir

White or Balsam Fir

White Fir

Shasta Fir

Alpine Fir

Amabilis Firor, erroneously, "Larch".
Noble Fir or, erroneously, "Larch," ..

Red Cedar or Giant Arborvitse

Alaska Cedar

Port Orford Cedar

Incense Cedar

Redwood

Juniper

Yew

Willow

Aspen

Cottonwood

Balm of Gilead .
Paper Birch

Western Birch

Red Alder

Mountain Alder

White Alder

Western White or Prairie Oak.

Canyon Live Oak

California Black Oak

Tanbark Oak

Wild Crabapple

Black Haw

Wild Cherry

Wild Plum

Bigleaved Maple

Vine Maple

Dwarf or Mountain Maple

Dogwood

Madrone

Oregon Ash

California Laurel

Scientific name.

Pinus lambertiana Dougl

Pinus monticola Dougl

Pinus albicaulis Engelm

Pinus pondcrosa Laws

Pinus jeffreyi " Oreg. Com."

Pintis contorta Loud

Pinus murrayana "Oreg. Com."

Pinus atten uata Lemmon

Larix occidcntalis Nutt

Picea sitchcnsis (Bong.) Trautv. & Mayer.

Picea engelmanni Engelm

Picea breweriana Wats

Tsuga heterophylla (Raf. ) Sargent

Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr

Pseudotsuga taxifolia ( Lam. ) Britton

Abies grandis Lindl

Abies concolor (Gord. ) Parry

Abies shastensis Lemmon

Abies lasiocarpa ( Hook. ) Nutt

Abies amabilis ( Loud. ) Forb

Abies nobilis Lindl

Thuja plicata Don

Chamsecyparis nootkatensis (Lamb.)Spach
Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Pari..

Libocedrus decurrens Torr

Sequoia scmpervirens (Lamb.) Endl

Juniperus scopulorum Sargent and J. occi-
dentalis Hook.

Taxus brevifolia Nutt

Salix (several species)

Popxdus tremuloides Michx

Popidus trichocarpa Torr. & Gr

Populus balsam/Jem Linn

Betula papyrifera Marsh

Where found.

Elderberry

Betula occidcntalis Hook

Aln us oregona Nutt

Alnus viridis De C

Alnus rhombifolia Nutt

Qucrcus garryana Dougl

Qucrcus chrysolej)is Liebm

Quercus californica (Torr.) Coop

Quercus densiflora Hook. & Arn

Pyrus rivularis Dougl

Crataegus douglassii Lindl

Primus emarginata (Dougl.) Walp

Primus subcordata Benth

Acer macrophyttum Pursh

Acer cirri natum Pursh

Acer glabrum Torr

Cornus nuttallii Aud . . . :

Arbutus menzicsii Pursh

Fraxin us oregona Nutt

Vmbrllularia californica (Hook. & Arn.)

Nutt.
Sambuetts glauca Nutt

Oregon only.
Semi-Alpine.
Alpine.

Oregon only.

Do.

Do.
Do.

Alpine.

Oregon only.

Do.
Alpine.
Semi-Alpine.

Do.

Do.
Oregon only.
Do.
Do.

Do.

Washington only;

very rare.
Rare.

Oregon only.
Do.
Do.

Do.

Do.

Chiefiv in burns.

LIST OF TREES OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON.

55

A list of the trees of Oregon and Washington, with some important shrubs — Continued.

SHRUBS.

Common name.

Salal

Oregon Grape

Salmonberry

Devil Club

Red Huckleberry

Blue Huckleberry

Wild Spiraea or Arrow-wood

Goat Brush, Buck Brush, or Wild Box

Manzanita

Serviceberry

Scientific name.

GauUheria shatton Pursch

Berberis nervosa and B. aquifolium Pursch.

Rubus spectabilis Pursch

Fatsia horrida Benth. & Hook

Vaccinium parvifolium Smith

Vaccinium ovalifolium Smith

Spirxa discolor Pursch

Pachystima myrsinites Raf

Arctostaphylos toincntosa Dougl

Am/ianchicr alnifolia Nutt

Where found.

Semi-Alpine.
In burns.

In burns and open ground the plants of most importance are the com-
mon Fern or Brake (Pteris aquilina Linn), Blackberry (Rubus ursinus
Cham. & Schlecht), Thimbleberry (Rubus mttkanus Mocino), and Fire-
weed (Epilobiuiii spicatuin Lam.).

O

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY— BULLETIN 34.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

J±

HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY

IN THK

STATE OF NEW YORK.

'BY

WILLIAM F. FOX.

WASH I NGTO X:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

I902.

BFREAU OF FORESTRY.

Forester, Giffoki» Pixchot.

Assistant Forest, r, < '.)vkrton W. Price.

Assistant Forester. George B. Scdwokth.

Chief Cltrk, Otto J. J. Luebkert.

Superintendent of Tree Planting, William L. Hall.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Frontispiece.

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2

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BUREAU OF FORESTRY— BULLETIN 34.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester

A

HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY

in the;

STATE OF NEW YORK.

BY

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

.RDEN

WILLIAM F. FOX.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
I 90 2.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Forestry,
Washington, D. 0., April 30, 1902.
Sir: I h:ive the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication ;is Bulletin No. 34 of the Bureau of Forestry, a report
entitled, "A History of the Lumber Industry in the State of New
York,' 1 prepared by Col. William F. Fox, superintendent of forests
in that State and a collaborator of this Bureau. Colonel Fox is fitted
both by study and by experience as a lumberman to treat his subject
authoritatively. The historical matter this report contains is now
made readily accessible for the first time.
Very respectfully,

GlFFORD PlNCHOT,

Forest* r.
Hon. James Wilson.

Srcn'tiiry of A<ji'i<'iil1)in .

2

CONTENTS.

Introduction

Page.

7

The primitive forest: Its composition 8

lit '^innings of lumbering 11

Fit-sawing 12

The first sawmills ( 1628) 12

The first lumber shipments 14

The lumber market a century ago 14

Primitive methods 15

A dangerous life 16

Rafting 17

Pioneer raftsmen 17

Rafting on the upper I Iudson 18

Construction of rafts 19

Rafting on the Allegheny 20

Lou-driving 22

Streams declared navigable 23

Flooding dams 24

Log-drivers and their work 24

Log-marks 26

Log-railroads 28

Length of logs 29

Log-rules 29

Modern sawmills :',i'

Tanneries 33

.Met h« uls of Lumbering 33

Modern improvements 38

"Captains of industry" 39

Wood j m 1m 40

Volume of business 42

Profits of the industry 43

Lumber markets of New York 43

Appendix , 47

Roll of pioneer lumbermen 47

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New York 47

ILLUSTRATIONS,

Page.

An Adirondack logging camp Frontispiece.

Plate I. Pit-sawing 12

II. Fig. 1. — An old-fashioned mill, showing guide blocks. Fig. 2. — Mill
in Ulster County, .showing saw-gate. Oldest mill in the State,

built in 1803 12

III. An old overshot water-wheel 12

IV. Logs left in the Hudson River at low water 18

V. Board rafts on the upper Allegheny, tied up for the night in an eddy. 20

VI. Fig. 1. — Logs and ice, the first drive, West Canada Creek. Fig. 2. —

Log-driving on the Ausahle River 24

VII. Fig. 1. — Modern band-saw, Tupper Lake, X. Y. Fig. 2. — Circular

saw, Tupper Lake, N. Y 32

VIII. Fig. 1. — Modern gang-saw, Tupper Lake, N. Y. Fig. 2. — Jack-lad-
der, with endless chain 32

IX. The dining room, Adirondack, log-camp 34

X. The men's r< 10m, Adirondack log-camp 34

XI. Fig. 1. — Cutting spruce logs, Hamilton County. Fig. 2. — Measuring

and marking logs on the skids 36

XII. Skidding logs in the Adirondack forests in winter 36

XIII. A skidway in the North woods 36

XIV. Fig. 1. — Skidding logs in summer. Fig. 2.— A big load on the way

to the rolling-bank 36

XV. River drivers, sleeping tents, and portable cook-shanty 38

XVI. Fig. 1. — Raquette pond and piling ground. Fig. 2. — The refuse-

1 iiirner 33

XVII. Fig. 1.— Beginning of water-slide: The rolling-bank. Fig. 2. — The

slide built along slanting rock 40

XVIII. Fig. 1.— Asleep at his post: Waiting for a jam. Fig. 2. — A dash... 40
XIX. Fig. 1. — A plunge. Fnd of water-slide, Ausable River. Fig. 2.—

Four-foot pulpwood logs. At rest at last 40

5

A HISTORY OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY IN
THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

INTRODUCTION.

From the time when the pioneers first swung their axes in the
primeval forests of New York, lumbermen have been closely connected
with the industrial progress and development of the State. The first
settler was the first lumberman; and his work commenced when he
felled the trees to make a clearing in the forest for his cabin and his
crops. Although this use of the ax alone would hardly constitute
lumbering as understood to-day, still it was not many years until a
sawmill appeared in each settlement and the lumber industry was
formal 1 v inaugurated.

Of necessity, the first colonists went without sawmills longer than
the later ones. The}' made rough lumber for their houses, barns, and
fences with their axes, supplemented at times by saws, large and small,
worked by hand-power. But in the later settlements, which in the
beginning of the last century included three-fourths of the State, a
sawmill was built in each locality within ten or fifteen years after the
first family moved in. In many instances the sawmill preceded the
gristmill; and in a few places the erection of the mill antedated the
advent of the first settlers.

Whatever means the first colonists used in converting trees into
lumber, the methods of logging must have been substantially the same
as those of to-da}^ From the first settlements to the present time lum-
bermen have never resorted to "clearing" operations in carrying on
their New York work. There is, however, a widespread impression
to the contrary, and people are very apt to attribute the absence of
forests to the work of the lumbermen. This is an error. The dis-
appearance of the forest is due to the farmer, not to the lumberman.
In clearing his land the farmer cuts and burns every tree and bush for
the purpose of improving his land. The lumberman takes only a few
scattered trees to the acre, confining his selection to some merchant-
able species. The carelessness of the farmers in burning their brush
and log heaps has caused many of the fires that have destroyed so much
of our forests. Lumbermen do not start fires for their work, ''"he

8 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

cutting and skidding are mostly done in the late fall, and the log-haul-
ing in the winter, when the woods will not take fire. Had no other
industry but lumbering been carried on within our borders, the once
unbroken forests of New York would still be standing.

THE PRIMITIVE FOREST: ITS COMPOSITION.

In 1614, the year when the first houses were built at Albany and on
Manhattan Island, the territory which now constitutes the State of
New York was forest-covered throughout. Some Indian tribes
belonging to the Six Nations had cleared small areas near their vil-
lages, on which they raised corn: and. on the east side of the Hudson
River, were some openings caused by forest tiros which the red men
had started in order to facilitate hunting. But these clearings formed
an insignificant portion of the entire region. It was a silent, unbroken
wilderness — a primeval forest, which in grandeur and undeveloped
wealth was unsurpassed in all the region of the Atlantic coast.

New York was not only a forest State, but essentially a white-pine
State. This valuable species was plentiful throughout the territory.
It was conspicuous everywhere by its towering size, although not as
abundant as some of the inferior and smaller associated species. In
height, diameter, and quality of timber the pines of New York com-
pared favorably with those of any other region on the continent.
The height ranged from 130 to 160 feet, with a diameter, breasthigh,
between 2 and 4 feet. In some localities there were individuals of
still srreater size. Occasional trees are said to have been 255 feet
high and about 80 inches in diameter. There is record of a White
Pine cut in the town of Meredith. Delaware County, that measured 247
feet in length as it lay on the ground. Many New York lumbermen
still living recall giant White Pines that measured 7 feet or more
across the stumps and over 220 feet in height.

There is ample historical evidence of the uniform distribution of
this species throughout the State. The history of Delaware County
states that "the town of Walton when first settled was heavily tim-
bered with pine and some hemlock, which at an early day was rafted to
Philadelphia in lumber or logs, constituting the all-absorbing industry
from which the land debts and living expenses were paid." and that "the
mountain east of the village of Walton received its name from the
immense pines that covered its sides, and the entire valley of the village
was a dense forest of the same." The history of Cattaraugus County tells
of the "remarkable size and good quality' 1 of the White Pine in the
southwestern part of New York. Holden's History of Warren County
mentions "the splendid pines with which the great Brant Lake tract
abounded." The writer — whose grandfather and father were the pio-
neer lumbermen of that famous tract — well remembers hearing in his
boyhood the White Pine of that region enthusiastically described as
being "clear as a hound's tooth." The meaning of the Indian name

THE PRIMITIVE FOREST : ITS COMPOSITION. 9

Schenectady, "the end of the pine plains," indicates that this species
was conspicuous in that region, although it seems that there it was
largely mixed with Pitch Pine. We are told that Pine street in New
York City took its name from the "many magnificent pines" that
adorned the farm of Jan Jansen Damen. a

Peter Kalm, the Swedish naturalist, who visited Albany in 1749,
writes: "The White Pine is found abundant here. The greater part
of the merchants have extensive estates in the country and a great deal
of wood. If their estates have a little brook, they do not fail to erect
a sawmill upon it for sawing boards and planks, with which commod-
ity many yachts go during the summer to New York, having scarce
any other lading than boards. They saw a vast quantity of deal from
the White Pine on this side of Albany, which is exported."

The younger Michaux states that in 1801 "the shores of Lake Cham-
plain appeared to be most abundantly peopled with this species."

Dr. Torrey wrote in 1843: "The White Pine is found in most parts
of the State;" and further, "Our chief extensive forests of this noble
and most valuable tree" are "on the headwaters of the Hudson and
on the rivers which empty into the St. Lawrence; on the Salmon and
Black rivers, which empty into Lake Ontario; on the headwaters of
the Delaware and Susquehanna, and on the headwaters of the Allegheny
and Genesee." This distribution includes substantially the entire
State except the lowlands, from which the White Pine had been taken
by the early settlers long before Torrey wrote.

The Adirondack tourist of to-day can still see in the tall trees at
Paul Smith's, or in the noble colonnade of White Pine along the shores
of Forked Lake, further evidence of its extensive habitat.

The Catskill region was also rich in White Pine, with a strong
admixture of Hemlock on its mountainous slopes. The Ulster County
Gazette contains an advertisement, dated November 13, 1799, which
reads as follows:

For Sale.

The one-half of a

SAWMILL

With a convenient place .for building,
lying in the town of Rochester. ,J By the
Mill is an inexhaustible quantity of Pine
W oon.

Any person inclined to purchase may
know the particulars by applying to

John Schoomaker, Jun.

"New York Historic Trees. New York Times, May 12, 1901.
b Town of Rochester, Ulster County; not the city of that name.

10 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The advertiser and his fellow lumbermen of that region have long
since gone their way, and with them their " inexhaustible quantity of
Pine Wood."

With the White Pine there was in many localities an admixture of
Norway Pine; and in Steuben County, or along the southern border,
considerable Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata Mill.), known in that local-
ity as Yellow Pine.

The White Pine, being the most valuable of all the forest trees, was
taken first, and, until 1850 or thereabouts, lumbering was confined
almost exclusively to this species.

Next in importance atthat time was the Hemlock, which was like-
wise distributed over the whole territory. Though of inferior dimen-
sions and quality throughout the Adirondack region, in the southern
tier of counties and along the Catskill Range it attained a size and
strength that compared favorably with the best Pennsylvania Hem-
lock.' 1 But, for a long period, it had no value except for tan bark.
The trees were cut and peeled, and the bark hauled to the tanneries;
the fallen tree trunks were left in the woods to decay. This was
largely the case until within twenty-five years, especially in Penn-
sylvania, the demand for bark being greatly in excess of the demand
for hemlock lumber. Not until there was a scarcity of spruce and
pine did lumbermen find it profitable to cut Hemlock for market, and
then for many years the margin of profit was very small.

The spruce, which in late years has formed so large a part of our
lumber product, was confined mostly to the Adirondack plateau and
Catskill slopes. It was not generally found in the western or south-
western portions of the State, nor in the southern tier of counties
along the Pennsylvania line, west of Broome County.

The other evergreen species of the State were not extensively used
for lumber until quite recently. The Balsam, which is confined
chiefly to the Adirondack forests, is now used for lumber and also
for pulpwood in a certain percentage of mixture with spruce. The
White Cedar has a steady demand, where accessible, for the manu-
facture of shingles, fence posts, and telegraph poles.

The hardwoods, or broadleafed trees, were everywhere mixed more
or less with the evergreens. In some places within the primeval for-
ests there were "hardwood ridges,"' so called because there were no
other species; and in other places there were slopes on which pine,

a In the town of Colchester, Delaware County, there is a Hemlock tree over 2 feet
in diameter standing on the line between divisions 63 and 64, upon the north side of
the hill, opposite the schoolhouse in the Wilson Hollow. In 1535, while it was a
young tree about 6 inches through, it was marked by some sharp instrument, prob-
ably an Indian weapon. Two hundred and fifty-three annual rings of growth over
this mark is a blaze made by James Cockburn in 1788, and over another twenty-
eight annual rings is a blaze made by Christopher Tappen in 1816.

BEGINNINGS OF LUMBERING. 11

Hemlock, or spruce grew unmixed in pure stands or "clumps."
Along the river valleys where the soil was rich and dark with alluvial
deposits, the more valuable hardwoods — White Oak, White Ash,
Black Cherry, and Black Walnut — predominated. Maple, Beech, and
birch grew everywhere, on mountain and plain; but there was no
Chestnut or oak on the great northern plateau, and there is none there
now.

Until recent } r ears lumbermen paid but little attention to the hard-
woods, and but few were cut except for cooperage, furniture, or
pyroligneous acid — industries which until quite recently were never
prominent in this State.

As fast as the lumbermen took out the pine and Hemlock, however,
the great hardwood forests that remained fell beneath the axes of
advancing farmers, and disappeared in fire and smoke.

BEGINNINGS OF LUMBERING.

The evolution of the sawmill is largely due to the conditions and
demands of the lumber industry in America. Our early colonists
built and operated sawmills one hundred years or more before there
was one in England. This method of manufacturing was not, how-
ever, absolutely necessary. The wainscotings, paneled ceilings, cabi-
network, and Chippendale furniture which made famous the stately
homes of England were constructed in all their perfection long before
the first sawmill was erected in that country. The men who founded
the Massachusetts Bay Colony, together with the emigrants who fol-
lowed them for a hundred years, had never seen a sawmill in their
native land. So, if a sawmill did not always appear in a colony
soon after the first settlement, it does not follow that no lumbering
was carried on. They had other means of manufacturing the forest
products.

The pioneer of the wilderness, with ax and wedge, could easily
supply his few wants in this respect; but in the villages which sprang
up at each important trading post there was a demand for building
material and ship-timber which the villagers themselves could not
well supply. Most of them were engaged in better paying pursuits
or professions; hence, some labor found employment in manufactur-
ing lumber by hand-power. The large timbers for house and ship
building were hewn out and squared with a broadax by men who
were experts with this tool. The planks, boards, and boat sides were
mostly made by pit-sawing. The latter was a common industry in
the old country; and one reason why England had no sawmills until
after 1768 was because the mobs, always opposed to labor-saving
machinery, destroyed the first' ones as fast as erected through fear
that the pit-sawyers would be thrown out of employment.

12 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

PIT-SAWING.

Pit-sawing- was done by two men with a long- saw that had cross
handles on each end. A stick of timber, hewed square, was placed over
a pit, or elevated on trestles. One man stood on top of it and pulled
the saw up, and one man stood in the pit below to pull the saw down.
(PI. I.) The workman on top, who guided the saw along- the chalk line,
and who was supposedly the better man, was called the top-sawyer.
The one below was called the pit-man. When sawmills were first sub-
stituted in this work the saw was held taut on the upward stroke by a
spring pole overhead, and was worked up and down by a wooden beam
attached to a crank on the mill wheel. This wooden beam was called the
pitman, and is still known by that name in every sawmill throughout
the country. Pit-sawing or whip-sawing, as it is often called, was not
entirely abandoned on the introduction of sawmills. This old method
was still useful in sawing long stuff, because in many mills the log-
carriage was not long enough to saw planks of the desired length. As
late as 1860, at the gang-mills near Painted Post, Steuben County, the
writer saw a large, square stick of timber being sawed in this fashion
into long planks for the sides of a canal boat.

THE FIRST SAWMILLS.

John Verrazzano and Hendrick Hudson made their famous discov-
eries and sailed awa}^ without leaving a man behind to occupy the newly
found territory. No settlement was made by white men, no house
erected, until 1614. Just when the labor of the settlers first took
the form which we now call lumbering it is impossible to say, but in
1623, nine years after the first house was built at New Amsterdam,
three sawmills were erected there by the Dutch West India Company;
and, with their erection, commences the history of lumbering in the
State of New York.

The machinery for these mills, which was shipped from Holland,
was constructed to run by water-power or by windmill. One of them
was built on Governors Island, and was probably operated by wind-
power; another, which stood on Sawmill Creek, a tributary of the
East River, may have used a water-wheel. In 1639 the mill on Gov-
ernors Island was leased at an annual rental of 500 merchantable boards,
half oak and half pine.

About the same time, perhaps a little earlier, some sawmills were
built at Fort Orange (Albany) or in its immediate vicinity. Andries
Corstiaensen, a master millwright, with two sawyers, was sent there
from Holland in 1630. Among the settlers at Rensselaerwyck (Troy),
in 1630, were Lawrens Lawrenssen and Barent Tomassen, sawvers. a

"History of Albany County, by George R. Howell. New York: W. W. Munsell
& Co. 1886.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

2%£ -4.*'*' s -1 4 -~ "•' * *v- ; *>*£» * 'it ■ . 4?i

PlT-SAW!NQ.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate ||.

But. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. DerM. of Agricultur

Plate III.

An old Overshot Water Wheel.

THE FIRST SAWMILLS. 13

In 1636 Barent Pieterse Koeymans joined the colony, and in the fall
of 1645 took charge of the Patroon's sawmills, being allowed 150
guilders a year for board and 3 stuy vers for every plank he sawed.
In two years this mill cut over 4,000 boards. In 1673 Koeymans
bought a large tract of land on the Hudson River, 12 miles south of
Albany (the location of the present town of Coeymans), on which
there were some desirable mill-sites, and where Cruyn Cornelissen
and Hans Jansen had erected sawmills as early as 1651.

The colonists soon made other settlements in the Hudson Valley,
and in 1661 Frans Pieters Clavers built a sawmill on the little stream
which runs into the river 2 miles north of Stuyvesant Landing, in
what is now the town of Kinderhook, Columbia County. This stream
has been known as the Saw Kill ever since. In 1663 a sawmill was
built by Jan Barentsen Wemp on the Poesten Kill, a stream which
empties into the Hudson at Troy. As the falls of the Poesten Kill (Puf-
fing or Foaming Creek) furnished a strong water-power, it may be
assumed that this mill was driven by a water-wheel.

In a letter to the Lords of Trade, England, dated January 2, 1701,
the Earl of Bellomont says: a

They have got about 40 sawmills up in this province [the province of New
York] which I hear rids more woods or destroys more timber than all the sawmills
in New Hampshire. Four saws are the most in New Hampshire that work in one
mill, and here is a Dutchman, lately come over, who is an extraordinary artist at
those mills. Mr. Livingston told me this last summer he had made him a mill that
went with 12 saws. A few such mills will quickly destroy all the woods in the
province at a reasonable distance from them.

For the first two hundred } T ears the mills were of rude construction
and of small capacity, being limited to a single upright saw. At first
the saw was attached directly to the pitman, the blade being steadied
by a side pressure from guide blocks. (PI. II, fig. 1.) Then an
improvement was made by straining the saw between stirrups in a
frame or "gate," the pitman being attached to the latter. (PI. II, tig.
2.) As the turbine was then unknown, power was obtained from a
single overshot water-wheel. (PI. III.)

Many of the first sawmills were built in combination with gristmills,
often under the same roof, the power being used to drive them both
or singly, as needed.

For the next hundred years after the founding of the colonies at
New Amsterdam and Fort Orange (Albany) the settlementof the State
was confined to the region of the Hudson and Mohawk valleys. The
development of the country and growth of the lumber industry were
slow compared with the progress which succeeded the Revolution.
There being no means of transportation except in the river districts.
the lumbermen, after supplying local demands, had to depend on the

'Colonial Documents, Vol. Ill, p. 825.

14 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

export business, which was confined largely to the English trade.
There was a market for large white-pine masts and ship-timber, which
gave employment to axmen and raftsmen to some extent. But even
at the close of the Revolution four-fifths of the State was still an
unbroken wilderness, and where the large and populous city of Roches-
ter now stands there was not a house or a white man to be seen one
hundred years ago.

Except in the Hudson and Mohawk counties settlements and lumber-
ing operations were not commenced earlier than one hundred and
twenty-five years ago. while throughout a very large area nothing was
attempted until a much later date. (See Appendix and map.) But
it is interesting to notice, as at New Amsterdam, how soon the sawmill
everywhere followed the first cabin, how quickly the lumber industry
began in each pioneer settlement, and how closely it was associated
with the development of the country.

THE FIRST LUMBER SHIPMENTS.

The lumbermen of the New Amsterdam colony were not confined to
the home market afforded by their fast growing town. They shipped
part of their product to England, for at that time, there being no saw-
mills in Great Britain, all of the lumber used in that country was
brouoht from Holland or made by hand sawyers at home. In fact, the
colonists sent some lumber to Holland in 1626. three years after the
first shipload of immigrants arrived. At first it was their only article
of export besides furs. This consignment in 1626 consisted of "con-
siderable oak timber and hickory.'" and was sent over in the good ship
Arms of Amsterdam .

In 1675 the ship Castle carried a cargo of timber, valued at £100,
from New York to England.

In 1686 Governor Dongan, in a report to the home government,
offers to "send over boards of what dimensions you please," adding
"three-inch planks for the batteries cost me fifteen shillings the hun-
dred feet." Surely the lumbermen of New York belong to an honor-
able as well as ancient guild.

THE LUMBER MARKET A CENTURY AGO.

In 1801, according to the younger Michaux, the White Pine that was

cut along the shores of Lake Champlain was carried to Quebec by the

Sorel and St. Lawrence rivers. He further says:

What is furnished by the southern part of the lake is sawn at Skenesborough,*
transported seventy miles in the winter on sledges to Albany; and, with all the lum-
ber of North River, brought down in the spring to New York in sloops of 80 or 100
tons, to be afterwards exported in great part to Europe, the West Indies, and the
Southern States.

"Whitenau.

PRIMITIVE METHODS. 15

The same author, in writing- about the lumber market at that time,

says:

The White Pine is found there in the following forms: In square pieces from 12 to
25 feet long, and of different diameters; in scantling, or square pieces 6 inches in
diameter for the lighter part of frames; and in boards, which are divided into mer-
chantable or common, and into clear or picked" boards. The merchantable boards
are three-fourths of an inch thick, from 10 to 15 inches wide, from 10 to 15 feet long,
and frequently deformed with knots; at New York they are called Albany boards,
and are sold at the same price as at Boston. The clear boards, formed from the
largest stocks of the Pumpkin Pines, are of the same length and thickness as the first,
and 20, 24, and 30 inches wide. They should be perfectly clear, but they are admitted
if they have only two knots small enough to be covered with the thumb. This wood
is also formed into clapboards and shingles.

PRIMITIVE METHODS.

At the beginning of the last century there was a lack of the tools
and labor-saving- appliances which are considered indispensable to-da} r
in the lumber business. Even the ax of the chopper was homemade —
a single bit with a curved hickory handle, the rude handiwork of the
nearest blacksmith; for the ax factories were yet to come, and the
double-bitted ax had not been invented. Crosscut saws, which had
to be imported from England, were scarce and costly; hence the tree
trunks were cut into logs by chopping- instead of sawing. The mill-
wrights were not much better off for tools. The first mill in Rensselaer
County was built in 1792, by a man named Cross, who "had no tools
but an ax, saw, and auger."

Skidways were rarely made, except where a stock of logs was left
lying in the woods, the logs being usually hauled directly to the mill.
Oxen were used for the most part in logging, the same teams being
employed on farm work part of the year; for the lumberman was also
a farmer.

There was no river-driving then. The great White Pines stood close
around the mill itself, and so thickly that the logs were quickly and
easily "snaked" there. The old-fashioned one-saw mill did not require
much timber to stock it; hence several years would elapse before the
haul became too long to be profitable. Then the lumberman would
move his mill into another tract of timber and resume logging. It was
not until years later that the Fox Brothers, the pioneer lumbermen of
Warren County, conceived the plan of driving the logs to the mill
instead of moving the mill to the logs, and so sent the first log drive
down the Sehroon River branch of the Opper Hudson.

There were timber thieves in those old days as well as now. Mr.

■"Pickings" still forme one of the well-known grades made by the Somber inspect-
ors in the Allium market.

16 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

Nathan Ford, the pioneer of Ogdensburg, in a letter to Samuel Ogden,
December 27, 1799, wrote:

There are several persons now cutting timber upon the two upper townships. Mr.
Wilkins took down the names of several who pretended to settle; their motive was
only stealing off the timber. If something is not done about this business, great
destruction will arise. An example ought to be made, and this can not be done with-
out sending an officer from Fort Stanwix. They have got the timber so boldly that
they say there is no law that can be executed upon them here.

But if there were thieves, there were likewise foresters to look after
them. In 1770 Adolphus Benzel, son of Archbishop Eric Benzel, of
Sweden, was appointed inspector of His Majesty's woods and forests
in the vicinity of Lake Champlain. at a salary of £300 per annum.
His residence was at Crown Point. a As early as 1700. Lord Bello-
mont, governor of New York, recommended that each person who
removed a tree should pay for planting "four or five young trees ;"
that no tree should be cut "that is marked for the use of the Navy.*'
and that no tree or trees be cut "but when the sap is in the root."

A DANGEROUS LIFE.

The life of the pioneer woodsmen was always beset with dangers pecul-
iar to their work. Early town records make frequent mention of
fatal accidents which befell them. It is remarkable how often the first
death in a settlement was of some man killed by a falling tree, of one
who was crushed by a load of logs, or killed in his sawmill. Not only
the pioneers, but their successors, have contributed to the same death
roll every year. The causes are various: A heavy limb falls, broken
by the wind; a tree "lodges," and, springing back from the stump,
kills the axman; a load of logs " shoves" the team down some steep
grade in the road, and the driver is thrown underneath or dashed
against a roadside tree; a tier of logs starts suddenly; a jam on the log-
drive breaks without warning; a man while fighting a forest fire finds
his retreat cut off; another disappears in the current of the spring
flood, and in the mills men fall upon the saws.

Accidents, painful but not fatal, also happened in the lumber woods.
It is written in tha records of the town of Middlebury. Wyoming
County, that —

In May, 1817, Artemas Shattuck went into the woods to chop. While cutting off
a log that had been partially split open, his foot was caught in the crack, and he
hung for a long time suspended by his foot and partly supported by one hand.
Despairing of receiving aid, he finally unjointed his ankle with his pocketknife,
made a crutch of a crooked stick, and started for the house.

Their privations had a pathetic side also, for we read in the history of
the town of Verona, Oneida County, that "the first death in the settle-
ment was that of a child who was buried in its cradle for want of a coffin."

a History of the town of Queensbury. By A. W. Holden, M. D.

b Colonial Documents, Vol. IV.

c In the footnotes appended to the town histories in Hough's Gazetteer of New
York there are twenty -one. instances mentioned in which the first death among the
settlers was caused by the falling of a tree.

RAFTING. 17

RAFTING.

The local market of each mill was limited to the distance which the
sawed lumber could be transported on wagons, over soft, newly built
roads; no canals or railroads extended these limits. The greater out-
side market could be reached only by rafting the product and floating
it down to the towns and cities, which were always located on some
waterway. Hence, the mills were erected on the upper waters of
creeks or rivers, which furnished at the same time water-power and an
outlet to market. Every lumberman was a raftsman as well as a log
jobber and mill owner.

Passing by the lumber operations during the first century of colonial
life, of which there is now very little record, we come to that period
in the history of the industry in the several counties which was marked
by the running of the first rafts.

PIONEER RAFTSMEN.

Arthur Noble, proprietor of the Arthurboro and Nobleboro Patents,
Herkimer County, built the first mill in that county in 1790. The
first lot of lumber sawed in this mill was rafted down West Canada
Creek, thence down the Mohawk to the Cohoes Falls, and then carted
to the Hudson River at Albany, where it was loaded in sloops and
shipped to Ireland.

In Broome County, in 1796, Edward Edwards built a sawmill on
the Onondaga stream, at a place which is now in the town of Lisle.
He was the first man to run a raft down the Chenano-o River. For
sixty years after the first settlements the staple product of this county
was white-pine lumber, which was rafted down the Susquehanna, some-
times to Norfolk, Va. The young men had not seen the world until
they had made this trip. It was a life of adventure. The river jour-
ney brought to their view whatever there was of civilization at that
period, and running the dams was perilous work that furnished mate-
rial for thrilling naratives on their return. Other business as well as
the lumber industry was dependent on the success of the raftsmen,
and notes were made payable "when the rafts get back.'" 1

In Delaware County, Jesse Dickinson, who, about L788, built a mill
on Trout Creek, in the town of Tompkins, ran the first raft that went
down the West Branch of the I >elaware River, the lumber being floated
all the way to Philadelphia.

In Chautauqua County the first lumber floated down the Allegheny
River was sawed at the mill owned by Dr. Thomas R. Kennedy, on

' In the town <>f Franklin, Delaware County, a large willow tree formerly stood in
the highway near the house of Judge Wattles. It grew from a cane used by Judge
Wattles in walking home from Philadelphia after "going down the river" upon a
raft in the Bpring.

L^olitH— No. 84—02 2

18 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

the Connewango Creek, in the town of Poland, near Jamestown. This
mill was erected in 1805, and by rafting* the boards in the Conne-
wango, a tributary of the upper Allegheny, the product Mas taken to
Pittsburg, the nearest market.

In Cattaraugus County the tirst lumber was rafted down the Alle-
gheny River in 1807. The rafts were owned by Bibbins Follett, Jede-
diah Strong, and Dr. Bradley. The first sawmill in this county was
built in 1801 at South Valley by the Quaker colony, and the lumber
for the first raft may have been put in the river there, although in
1807 there were mills at Olean and Portville.

Every navigable river in the southern part of the State has been
utilized at one time or another by lumbermen. Board rafts, bound
for tide water or "tide,"" could be seen on the Chemung and Tioga
rivers as late as in the sixties, and on the upper Allegheny they were
a prominent feature of the lumber business until the construction of
the railroad along the river shore from Pittsburg to its headwaters in
Cattaraugus County, N. Y. The last of them went down the river
about 1890.

RAFTING ON THE UPPER HUDSON.

The Hudson River was never used by raftsmen below Albany; for
a raft could make no progress unless both wind and tide were favor-
able. The lumber was therefore carried in sailing vessels from Albany
to New York or to the old country.

Mrs. Grant 1 in describing rafting on the upper Hudson, in 1768,
says:

It so happened that the river had been higher than usual that spring, and, in con-
sequence, exhibited a succession of very amusing scenes. The settlers, whose
increase toward Stillwater had been for three years past incredibly great, set up
sawmills on every stream, for the purpose of turning to account the fine timber which
they cleared in great quantities off the new lands. The planks they drew in sledges
to the side of the great river; and when the season arrived that swelled the stream
to its greatest height, a whole neighborhood assembled and made their joint stock
into a large raft, which was floated down the river with a man or two on it, who,
with long poles, were always ready to steer it clear of those islands or shallows which
might impede its course. There is something serenely majestic in the easy progress
of those large bodies on the full stream of this copious river. Sometimes one sees a
whole family transported on this simple conveyance; the mother calmly spinning,
the children sporting about her, and the father fishing at one end and watching its
safety at the same time. These rafts were taken down to Albany, and put on board
vessels there for conveyance to New York; sometimes, however, it happened that,
as they proceeded very slowly, dry weather came on by the time they reached the
Flats, and it became impossible to carry them further; in that case they were
deposited in great triangular piles opposite our door. (See PL IV.)

The greater portion of the pine on the slopes along Lake Champlain
was sent to market in rafts, through the lake and down its outlet — the
Sorel River— to Canada, whence it was exported to England.

" Memoirs of an American Lady. By Mrs. Anne Grant. Albany : Joel Munsell, 1876

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

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23

KAFTING. 19

In 1808, owing to international disputes, Congress laid an embargo
on all trade with Canada. This restriction bore heavily on the lumber-
men of Clinton County, who were dependent on the Canadian market.
That year a large timber raft, said to have been a quarter of a mile
long, lay at Isle la Motte waiting for a favorable wind to carry it over
the line. The United States revenue officer, supported b} r a company
of militia, was watching it, under orders to prevent any export of that
kind. The bold raftsmen, undaunted by the display of military,
pushed out into the stream, the soldiers following along the shore.
After a brisk exchange of musketry and rifle shots, in which no one
was injured, the lumbermen crossed the line and proceeded on their
way without further hindrance.

CONSTKUCTION OF EAFTS.

No history of the lumber business in this State would be complete
without some description of the construction of a raft. In 1865, and
for several years subsequent, the writer was engaged in rafting on the
upper Allegheny, both boards and square timber, putting in his rafts
at Olean, Weston's, and Portville, in Cattaraugus County, N. Y., and
running them to Oil City, Pittsburg, and Cincinnati. The details of
the business, its varied scenes and incidents, are easily recalled to mind.

Board rafts, pine or hemlock, were from 2± to 30 courses deep, a
"course" consisting of inch "stuff," or its equivalent in plank or joist.
The number of courses varied according to the height of the "fresh"
and the judgment of the pil^t, on whose ability to handle the raft amid
bars and shoals the owner was dependent for a successful and profit-
able trip. In that part of the State all logs were cut 16 feet long,
except a small number of twelves, which were cut when necessary to
save timber. Hence the platforms of a board raft were 16 feet square.
They were built up in successive layers, the boards in each course being-
laid at right angles to those just below, thus binding them together
securely.

At the corners of each platform, and at intervals along the four
sides, round wooden stakes, about 2 inches in diameter, extended from
the under side of the raft to the top, passing through augur holes in
some of the boards. These "grub stakes." as they were called, were
made of sapling trees peeled and cut away at the roots until only a
knot) remained at the lower end, which was larger than the augur hole
in the boards above it through which the stake was passed. The
binding boards in the top course were wedged solidly at the augur
holes, 80 that the stakes could not pull out. Five platforms thus con-
structed were connected closely, forming a "five-platform piece."
The larger rafts were made up by coupling three of these five-plat-
form pieces side by side and fastening three more behind them. A
raft of this size would then be 48 feet wide and L60 feet long; and if

20 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

it had twenty-live courses it would contain over 180,000 feet of lum-
ber, board measure.

The greater part of this floating mass was submerged, the top
course being from 6 to 8 inches above water. Occasionally a" deck
load" of shingles or dressed lumber was carried on top; but the latter
was not taken unless the owner intended to peddle it out along the
river at places where there were no planing mills: (PI. V.)

At the forward end of each five-platform piece was a large oar. On
a raft such as just described there were three oars in front and three
behind — not on the sides, but at the ends, projecting forward and
backward. The oar blade was a 14-foot plank, 12 inches wide, thin on
the lower edge; the oar, made from a small tree, was about 18 feet
long and 8 or 10 inches in diameter at the large end. where it was
attached to the blade. It was hewed tapering to the small end or han-
dle at which the men stood. So large and clumsy were these rafting
oars that two, and often three, men were necessary in handling them.
When not in use the oars rested on the raft with their projecting
blades just clear of the water. At the command of the pilot the blades
were dipped by raising the handles high, and then the men pushing on
the oars with hands lifted above their heads, tramped across the plat-
form, bracing their feet against cleats nailed on the pathway for that
purpose. The oars were used to move the raft sidewa} T s and keep it
in the current; or, in turning sharp bends in the river, to swing it on
its center by "crosspulling," in which the oars at the two ends were
worked in contrary directions.

The work of the men was directed by a pilot, whose long experience
had acquainted him with the rocks and bars and taught him how to
take advantage of the swirling current or to avoid its treacherous
force. As a large raft had six oars — three in front and three behind —
a full crew required from 12 to 18 men, not including the pilot and
the cook.

A. shanty was built on one of the forward platforms, around the
sides of which there were bunks in triple tiers. For bedding there was
plenty of clean straw and coarse, warm blankets. A fireplace for the
cooking was made just outside the cabin by placing four short boards
on edge and tilling the square with earth.

RAFTING ON THE ALLEGHENY.

On an ordinary flood the rafts would run from 40 to 50 miles each
day. At nightfall the pilot would always swing in to the bank in
some edd} T , throw a cable ashore, and, with a turn or two around some
large tree, "snub"" the raft until its momentum w^s slowly overcome.
Yielding to the crew, he generally tied up near some town or village
where there were plenty of other rafts and company for the men in the

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

Board Rafts on the Upper Allegheny, tied up for the Night in an Eddy.

KAFTESTG. 21

tavern; there the question as to who was the best man and all other
disputes were duly fought out. The Allegheny raftsmen were a stal-
wart type, many of them Indians from the Salamanca Reservation;
and among them were not a few "bad" men, as they are termed in
modern slang. After receiving their pay at Pittsburg, they gener-
ally walked home to Cattaraugus County, some of them doing- easily
40 miles or more a day.

It was a pleasant, jolly, outdoor life, floating down the river through
the forest-covered hills and mountains of the Alleghenies, gliding past
the clearings and cabins of pioneer farmers, and running through vil-
lages or cities where the bridges were lined with people waiting to see
the rafts go by.

Sometimes the raft carried one or more passengers — friends of the
owner or pilot — people who were content with the plain fare and food
provided.

But rafting had its trials and perplexities. Although the river dams
were built with chutes or aprons to facilitate the passage of rafts, some-
times the long, floating mass would swing in the wind and current and
"saddle bag" on the head of the bar below the dam. Then the boards
had to be "rafted over," occasioning a delay which, on a fast falling
freshet, often resulted in getting "stuck" again on some shoal farther
down the river. There the raft would lie all summer, the lower courses
filling with mud and the top course warping in the sun.

Bridge piers were always a source of danger, especially where there
were three or four in close succession, as at Oil City and Pittsburo-.
Years ago the raftsmen delighted in telling the story of a Susquehanna
pilot who said that there were 30 piers in the Columbia bridge, and he
"run 'em all but one." The Susquehanna was a much more difficult
river for rafting than the Alleghem T — higher dams, more bridges,
larger rocks, and more shoal water.

Mairy old-time lumbermen claimed that rafted lumber was better
than any other, because the soaking of the boards so diluted the sap
and resinous matter that when piled again in the yards it would season
better and quicker. But an}' advantage thus gained was more than
offset by the wet, muddy condition of the boards as they came from
the river. Each course had to be scrubbed with a broom, and even
then the front of each pile in the lumber yard was plastered with the
mud scraped off as the boards were drawn up over the edge. Then,
again, when the dried lumber was sent to the planing mill it was
covered with a thin coating of dirt and grit that dulled the planer
knives and filled the mill with a cloud of tine dust.

Hewed timber was also rafted to market. Fifty years ago most of
the long timber was hewed instead of sawed, for the mills had no
appliances then for sawing long sticks. Moreover, the hewed timber

22 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

was thought to he more valuable; it was stronger and would last
longer than sawed timber wherever it was used. The sticks were of
AVhite Pine, ranging from 30 to 70 feet long and from 12 to 24 inches
square. At one time considerable "square 1 ' timber, as it was called,
was sent to the Albany and New York markets by canal, the rafts
being made up into "lockbands" corresponding in size to the canal
locks.

LOG-DRIVING.

Log-driving on the upper Hudson commenced about 1813. This
idea of floating logs to mill was first used b} T the Fox Brothers, Norman
and Alanson, in bringing their timber from the Brant Lake Tract to
the mills at Glens Falls. These had previously been stocked by haul-
ing the logs direct to the mill. Their example was quickly followed,
and for seventy-five years the great sawmills at Glens Falls, Sandy
Hill, and Fort Edward obtained their stock in this way, thereby center-
ing the entire manufacturing business of the upper Hudson and its
tributaries in that locality.

In time a sorting boom became necessaiy at some convenient place
on the Hudson where the logs of the various lumber companies could
be separated in accordance with the "log-marks" stamped on the ends
of each log. This necessity, together with the frequent loss of stock
by the breaking of poorly constructed booms in time of high water,
caused the organization, in 1849, of the Hudson River Boom Associa-
tion, and the construction of the "big boom" at Glens Falls. Here
suitable arrangements were made for holding and sorting the logs
belonging to the various mills located at or below that place.

From the books of this compan} T it appears that in 1851 there were
132,500 "market" logs, a 19-inch standard, equivalent to 26,500,000
feetB. M., received at this boom. The next year 69,080,000 feet of
logs passed through. These figures show approximately the extent
of the lumber business on the upper Hudson at that time.

The business increased yearly until the maximum was reached in
1872, when 1,069,000 standards, or 213,800,000 feet, were handled at
this point. At that time lumbermen were not cutting below 12 inches
on the stump, or nothing less than ""two-log" trees. Hence, the logs
in the boom ran, on an average, about two to the standard, and the
1,069,000 standards delivered that year represented over 2,000,000
separate logs or "pieces."

After 1872 the business declined steadity until 1900, when the books
of the boom company showed that 282,771 markets, or 56,554,200 feet
had been received that year. These figures tell briefly the story of the
rise and fall of the lumber business on the Hudson watershed.

a The market or standard log is 19 inches in diameter at the small end and 13 feet
long.

STREAMS DECLARED NAVIGABLE. 23

STREAMS DECLARED NAVIGABLE.

At first the people living along- the river objected strenuously to the
use of the streams for floating logs to the mills. The first law declar-
ing any river in this State a "'public highway" was passed in 1806.
This act provided that the Salmon River, in Franklin County, could
be used for rafts and boats below Malone, and it enacted further that
if any person shall "cut or fell any trees into the said river such
person shall forfeit one dollar for each tree so felled and suffered to
remain in the said river twenty-four hours.' 1 This same law, chapter
139, forbade any person from "rolling an} r log or logs into the
Schroon River in Essex County, or doing anything to obstruct said
river," under a penalty of $5 for each offense; but provided that nothing
in the act should " prevent any person from rafting any lumber down
said river they may think proper." The restrictions in this law as to
obstructions will be read with interest by those who, in recent years,
have noticed how many of our Adirondack rivers are tilled at times
for a long distance with a solid mass of floating logs through which no
boat can pass.

But industrial interests are always recognized in time, and so, in
1854, the legislature declared the Salmon River kw a public highway
for the purpose of floating saw-logs and timber." In fact, a portion
of the river was so used before the passage of this law.

In 1801 the legislature passed a'law (chapter 103) to punish anyone
who stole timber or lumber that was floating down the river or lying
along the shore. This act refers to "any timber, hewed, sawed, or
riven," terms which do not seem to include saw-logs, and which would
indicate that only long timber, spars, and masts were floated down the
stream at that time. Section 2 of this law provides a severe penalty
for persons who shall "deface or alter any mark, or put a false mark
on any such timber,' 1 from which it appears that "log-marks" were
in use then, even if short logs were not driven down the stream.
Nine years later a law w T as passed (chapter 34, Laws of 1813) requiring
all log-marks to be recorded in the office of the town clerk of Queens-
bury, and the phraseology of this act shows that log-driving had com-
menced <>n the Hudson and "its branches to the northwest of Baker's
Falls." In 1825 a similar act was passed for the protection of log-
marks on the Au Sable River.

In 1810 the State legislature declared the Raquette River a public
highway from its month to the bottom of the falls in the township of
Louisville (St. Lawrence County) for rafts and boats. Chapter 264
of the Laws of 1850 declared the Raquette River a public highway for
the purpose of floating logs and lumber from its month in the town of
Massena to the foot of Raquette Lake, in the county of Hamilton.

The Black River was first declared a highway in L821, the law pro-

24 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

viclino- for "rafting timber or lumber." The Grasse River was made
a highway in 1824, and in 1854 an act was passed "to improve" this
stream "for floating timber and saw-logs."

The years in which other rivers were delared oublic highways for
floating logs were as follows:

Genesee River a 1818 St, Regis:

Delaware River 1822 West Branch 1854

Saranac River 1846; East Branch 1860

Moose River 1851 \ Oswegatchie River 1854

Chateaugay River 1851 \ Sacandaga River 1854

Beaver River 1853 Great Chazy River 1857

West Canada Creek 1854 \ Deer River 1867

FLOODING DAMS.

After the merchantable timber along the main rivers had been cut
lumbermen turned their attention to the more remote and inaccessible
tracts on mountain slopes, where the streams were narrow, rocky,
and rapid. Then commenced the erection of "splash" or "flooding"
dams, which were used to drive the logs out of the small streams on
the temporary, artificial floods caused by opening the gates, and also to
reenforce the subsiding waters of the main stream.

These flooding dams seldom did any damage to standing timber, because
the ponds were always drawn down in the early spring when the water
was needed for log-driving, and the gates were left open until the next
spring. There was no backflow during the period of vegetation, and
the temporary flooding of the roots of the trees jn the spring did not
kill the timber. Trees are killed only where water is allowed to cover
the ground for two or more successive summers. There is a general
impression, however, to the contrary, and that the lumbermen with their
flooding dams are responsible for the killing of live timber and the
destruction of forest scenery. But the dead timber in the flowed lands
of the Adirondacks is, in nearly every instance, the result of some dam
or reservoir which was built in the interest of the State canals, local
steamboat lines, or manufactories on the lower waters. The lumber-
men had little or nothing to do with it.

In the southern and western portions of New York lumbermen rarely
built these flooding dams. The country was not so mountainous nor
the streams so rapid or violent as in the Adirondacks; the spring floods
held up longer by reason of a less rapid flow, and log driving was
easier in every respect,

LOG-DRIVERS AND THEIR WORK.

The beginning of log-driving was coincident with the sudden increase
in the development of the countiw at the commencement of the last

11 In 1828 the Genesee River was declared a public highway from Rochester to the
Pennsylvania line.

Bui, 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

Fig. 1.— Logs and Ice— the first Drive— West Canada Creek.

Fig. 2.— Log driving on the Ausable River.

LOG-DRIVERS AND THEIR WORK. 25

century. Former primitive methods of hauling- logs from the forest
to the mill were no longer adequate to supply the increasing demand.
The haul had become too long to be profitable, and there were no
canals or railroads in those days. Hence it became necessary for the
manufacturers either to move their sawmills upstream or to flood
their logs down to the mills.

In a few years log-drivers were at work on every large river in the
State. Logs which were cut and skidded in the fall were hauled dur-
ing the winter to the shore of some stream, where they were piled in
huge tiers on the "banking grounds," as they were called on the Sus-
quehanna, or "landings" or "rolling-banks, ,, in northern New York.
With the first spring freshet, or often while the ice was still running,
the blocking was knocked loose and the great piles of logs allowed to
roll down into the turbid stream. When possible the logs were un-
loaded from the sleighs directly on the ice of some lake or stream, in
order that they might go out with the ice on the first spring flood.
(PI. VI, tig. 1.)

In the lake region of the Adirondacks. river-drivers had the addi-
tional task of moving their logs through the lakes, where there was
no current to assist their progress, but too often a contrary wind, that
drove their logs back or scattered them. In passing through these
lakes lumbermen generally rafted the logs or inclosed them in strongly
connected booms, and then " warped " their way through the open
water by using an anchor, a long heavy cable, and an upright windlass
placed on the forward end of a strongly constructed raft. This work
was often done at night, or whenever the lake was still and free from the
strong winds so prevalent in early spring. Old river-drivers, in telling
of the early log-drives, still describe how through the long hours and
darkness they leaned wearily against the capstan bars as they tramped
round and round the platform while " kedging" their way through
the lakes.

The work of the river-drivers was perilous. Scarcely a season
passed without someone being drowned or killed on some stream.
Men were crushed under swift-rolling logs at the banking grounds,
chilled to death in the icy waters, or killed in breaking the great jam
which formed at every obstruction in the river. The most dangerous
work was usually done by volunteers, and if all the deeds of heroism
and self-sacrifice performed by river-drivers while attempting to save
the life of some comrade in danger were recorded they would be found
to equal anything in the histories of fire. Hood, or battlefield.

The drivers were necessarily men of stalwart build and superb phy-
sique. With surprising agility they would leap from log to log while
they were running down the rapid, swirling current; and. standing-
upright on a small log, with nothing to aid them buf a pike-pole or
level-, they would guide their treacherous craft as skillfully as an
Indian his eanoe. (PI. VI, fig. '2.)

26 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

But the old-time river-driver is passing, and now, when the cit} T
hunter or fisherman makes his headquarters in some old, abandoned
log-camp, he looks thoughtfully at the floor, thickly pitted with the
marks made by the spikes in the river-drivers' shoes, and thinks of the
days of the big "log-drives," while he listens to the guide who tells
the story of how some "good man" met his death bravely in the white,
foaming rapids on the head of the jam.

In later years, on the larger streams, the owners of the various
mills usually arranged for a " union drive." the expense being shared
by the log- owners in proportion to the number of standards they had
in the drive, this amount being determined by a tally kept at the sort-
ing boom, or taken from the books of the log-sealers.

LOG-MARKS.

Each lumberman on the river had his own peculiar log-mark, which
was stamped with a marking hammer on the ends of his logs while
piled in the woods on the skid ways, or before they were put into the
stream. There were so many different firms operating on the upper
Hudson that the ingenuity of the lumbermen was greatly taxed to
devise new and distinctive marks for their floating property.

Some of the principal marks used from 1851 to 1890 on the upper
Hudson and its tributaries, the Sacandaga, Schroon, and Boreas rivers,
were as follow^:

A Wing & Co . Bradley c\; Underwood Q(J

A.X.Cheney ■£} Kenyon Lumber Co ^

Tefft & Russeli Q < >rson Richards 0~0

Morgan Lumber Co ^ Van Dusen & Crandal] *g?

James Morgan & Co {7x Freeman A: Van Dusen fjj

Finch, Pruyn & Co J£ Cheney & Amies |Gj

Morgan & McEchron QL/ Lemon Thomson Y

W. H. Bloomingdale y Thomson, Douglas & Dix T)

D.W.Sherman ^ Union Bag and Paper Co tPp

A.Sherman g International Paper Co V/

George H. Freeman r-i

On the Tioga River the firm of Fox. Weston & Bronson used the
following marks to distinguish the logs coming from their various
timber tracts: 0OAv?§g-

Other marks used on the Tioga were as follows:
Ballard & Co | Cameron & Co (2?

On the Oswegatchie River the logs of the principal firms were
stamped as follows:

Starbuck & McCarty § | Weston, Dean & Aldrich ^

On the Indian River (Lewis County) Roberts & Brooks used this
mark: »-J-<.

LOG-MARKS.

27

On the Raquette River the log marks recorded in the town clerk's
office at Potsdam since 1851 included, among- others, the following-:

Ransom Jenkins -7^

A. M. Adsit & Coc -f- -^-

Henry Hevvett pj-J

Hewett & Townsend [^

Parmenter & Hitchings

George L. Stanton

Morgan, Rosekrans & Adsit

S. Chamberlain & Co )=|

Hitchings & Hall ^T

N. Pratt & Son jQ

Ralph Pomeroy y^-J

Archibald Robertson q

George W. Sisson ^

Sherman Lumber Co x ^ $

Augustus Sherman iQ

Burnham, Loveless & Co ^

M. S. Ballard -0-

A

W. A. Griswold

Foster & Boswell %),

Harmon & Rice §

Norwood Manufacturing Co ... {Q

Watkins, Turner & Co ^

Export Lumber Co SAX

Export Lumber Co ^pj

Ralph & Co X

In addition to the foregoing there were a large number of log-marks
on the Raquette in which letters or numerals were used.

The law requiring that the log-marks on the Raquette River should
be recorded was passed in 1851. It allowed the town clerk 25 cents
for recording each mark. Many of these marks had been in use on
the Raquette River prior to 1851. ' Since then 102 different marks have
been recorded, the last entry having been made December 1, 1900, by
the Raquette River Paper Company.

On the Saranac River there were:

Maine Company XX Loren Ellis E

Christopher F. Norton -y \ Thomas & Hammond "f

H. &0. A. Tefft c£L> Patrick Hanlon Q-Q

J. H. & E. C. Baker 5 D. H. & W. Parsons <f

Everitt C. Baker Jj

As the different lumber firms went out of business from time to
time and had nO further use for their marks, the right to use them
was usually bought by other lumbermen. To reprint all the different
marks used on the many logging streams would occupy too much
-pace. Those shown here will give some idea of what constituted a
"log-mark." The characters were made in different sizes, but were
usually from 1 to ?> inches in length and width. In some instances
numerals instead of characters were used. In selecting a design for a
log-mark care was taken to choose one which would easily be recog-
nized as the log passed through the "gap" at the sorting boom; and
the men who did the marking with the hammer were supposed to hit
the log in several places on each end, so that whatever side might lie
up as it floated through the opening some one of the marks would

28 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

show plainly above the water. The river-drivers and men at the
sorting boom necessarily became very familiar with the various log
marks and had their own terms for them, suggested by some resem-
blance. Thus there was the crow's foot, double O, wine cup, triangle,
hawk eye, box, deer's foot, anchor, etc. These marks were also of
use in the mill yard or piling ground, as showing the job or firm to
which the lumber belonged, a part or all of the stamp showing here
and there on the ends of a board or plank.

With the introduction of railroads, logging cars, steam log-loaders,
and jack-works for loading logs from the lake or stream onto cars, the
Lumbermen are no longer entirely dependent on river-driving for get-
ting their stock to the mill. The railroad has the advantage of being
available any month of the year, and the mills are not compelled to
shut down in the dry season for lack of stock. There is no loss on
account of having a drive ''hung up" for many months, the logs dete-
riorating in the meantime. With the railroad the stock can be
brought to the mill just as it is required.

LOG-RAILROADS.

The first railroad for hauling logs was built in 1S52 by Fox, Wes-
ton & Bronson, in the town of Lindley, Steuben County, N. Y. It was
constructed of wooden rails and was equipped with platform cars and
a locomotive which bore on its cab the name "* Bull of the Woods.*'
This railroad was not used as a substitute for log-driving, but for haul-
ing logs to the bank of the Tioga River, whence they were driven to
the large gang-mills at Painted Post.

Our Adirondack lumbermen were quick to perceive the advantage
of using railroads for transporting timber in localities where it was
not possible to drive the logs and timber to the desired point for man-
ufacture, and there are now several timber tracts in northern New
York where all the logs are taken out by rail. However, it is an
unquestioned fact that water furnishes the cheapest power for moving
timber, as each time the logs are handled separately, in loading and
unloading, adds to their cost, and the cost of transportation by rail
almost invariably exceeds that of log-driving.

The use of the railroad makes it possible to get out hardwood timber,
which otherwise could not be utilized because the logs are too heavy
to be floated down the stream and would sink. The hardwoods — birch,
maple. Beech, ash, and cherry — constitute, on an average, over 65 per
cent of our northern forest. In the Catskills they form a still larger
proportion. As this class of timber becomes accessible under the
improved methods of logging the value of such timber lands is
greatly enhanced, and this in turn will have a direct influence on the
forest policy of the State. Hitherto the State has been purchasing
forest lands at a low price. The lumbermen, after removing the
small proportion of conifers, were willing to sell at a low figure,

LENGTH OF LOGS LOG-RULES. 29

because the remaining- hardwoods could not be marketed and the taxes
were burdensome. But now that the hardwoods as well as the others
will probably be cut there is imperative necessity for more prompt
and liberal action by the State legislature if the forests are to be pre-
served. Hitherto lumbering has meant a culling or thinning process,
the removal of the evergreens only; it soon may mean denudation.

LENGTH OF LOGS.

The lumbermen of southern and western New York usually cut
most of their logs into lengths of 16 feet to supply the market demand
for 16-foot boards. They also cut some 12-foot and 11-foot logs in
order to save timber. But boards of the shorter lengths were some-
what unsalable. In the Adirondack forests nearly all logs were cut
13 feet long. The reason for adopting this odd length is not known
now. For nearly a hundred years the lumbermen of northern New
York have cut 13-foot logs, sawed 13-foot boards, and sold 13-foot
lumber in the Albany and New York markets, although logs every-
where else in the United States are cut into lengths of 16 feet or some
other even number. Fifty years ago the 10-inch boards, 13 feet long,
from the Glens Falls mills were known in these markets as "tally
boards." and were sold by count instead of measure.

LOG-RULES.

Throughout the State, with the exception of the Adirondack coun-
try, lumbermen usually bought or sold logs by one of two rules —
Doyle's or Scribner's. Prior to 1850 Edward Doyle and J. M. Scrib-
ner each published an original tabulation of figures, called a log-rule,
showing the number of feet, board measure, which a log of any size
would 3 r ield when sawed into inch lumber. For half a century or
more the relative merits of these two rules have been a source of fre-
quent discussion, there being a material difference in the figures given
by the two authorities.

It may seem strange that there should be any difference over a
mathematical problem of this kind. Certainly if the saws were of the
same thickness and the sawyers equally skillful there could be no vari-
ation in the results. But logs are not cylindrical; they are tapering,
sometimes crooked, often rotten in spots, and apt to be defective in
various ways. Hence in formulating a log-rule for general use
allowance must be made for slabs, saw-kerf, waste, and various defect-
that may he found in almost any large lot of logs. It was on this
matter of allowance that Doyle and Scribner differed.

The Doyle rule is based on a fixed, arbitrary formula, which is fairly
correct as to medium-sized logs, but is inaccurate, necessarily so. as to
others. Starting with the Lo-foot lengths, he arrives at the number
of feet, hoard measure, in a log of -that length and of any diameter
by deducting 4 inches from the diameter and then taking the square
of the difference. For instance, in finding the contents of :i log 16 feet

30

HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

long, 20 inches in diameter, he uses this formula: (20"— 4") 2 — 256
feet. Having determined the contents of the 16-foot logs, all other
lengths are computed proportionately. Hence a log 12 feet long and
20 inches in diameter would contain 192 feet, or twelve-sixteenths of
256.

Scribner arrived at his table of contents by platting circular dia-
grams showing the number of square-edged boards in a log properly
sawed. From these diagrams the amount of lumber was computed
for each diameter, after which a tixed percentage was deducted for the
imperfections common to an ordinary lot of logs.

Doyle's figures for the contents of small logs are much below those
given by Scribner, while in large logs he allows more than Scribner.
Both rules agree substantially on logs of 24 inches in diameter, the
lines crossing at this point and diverging in opposite directions. For
instance:

Diameter.

Length.

Doyle.

Scribner.

Inclti 8.

Feet.

Feet 11. M.

Feet B. 31.

10

13

29

41

21

13

325

.328

36

13

832

750

10

16

36

54

24

16

400

404

36

16

1,024

923

As a majority of the trees and all top logs are less than 24 inches
in diameter, the sawmill owners, being the purchasers, naturally
favor Doyle's rule. When logs were bought or contracted for with
jobbers at a fixed price per thousand feet, the stock cost less money
by using the Doyle rule. In letting log contracts to jobbers, or in
purchasing logs from outside parties, the sawmill companies have
always insisted on buying, contracting, and measuring logs b} r the
Doyle rule, as it discriminates in their favor. As a result of this dis-
crimination the old Scribner rule has gradually been abandoned and is
rareby used at present.

On a lot of straight, sound logs from 10 to 20 inches in diameter
Doyle's rule would be too severe, and the contents as shown by the
saw-bill would overrun the log measurement. But with a lot of large
hemlock logs (which, when sawed, are liable to run largely into second
quality and cull lumber, because of the shaky timber and other defects)
the Do}de rule would be more advisable if the purchaser expects his
saw-bill to hold out, and to have a million feet of merchantable lumber
for each million feet of logs bought. A scaler who thoroughly under-
stands his business can, however, make the proper deductions in meas-
uring the logs.

LOG-EULES. 31

In the Adirondack region logs are usually bought and sold by the
standard, a log of certain size being adopted as the unit, which is called
the standard. The standard in o-eneral use is a log 13 feet lono- and 19
inches in diameter at the small end. All logs are measured and com-
pared with this standard as a unit. The method of comparison for
logs of the same length (13 feet) is to divide the square of the diameter
of the log at its small end by the square of the diameter of the stand-
ard; that is, by 361. The result, whether decimal or whole number,
expresses the size of the log in terms of the standard as a unit. In
buying and selling logs, five standards are considered equivalent to
1,000 feet, board measure.

The standard log, 13 feet long and 19 inches in diameter at the small
end, contains, according to the Doyle rule, 183 feet, board measure;
according to the old Scribner rule, 195 feet. But it has repeatedly
been proven by tests that a sound, straight, standard log, carefully
sawed with a band-saw, will yield 200 feet, board measure, of straight-
edged boards; and this is the assumption of the Adirondack lumber-
men, who, in handling logs, speak of live standards as being equivalent
to 1,000 feet.

In the Saranac region lumbermen formerly used a log 22 inches in
diameter at the small end as a standard unit of calculation.

When speaking of the 19-inch standard, lumbermen often make use
of the term "market" instead of standard, and speak of 20,000 stand-
ards as 20,000 markets, meaning 20,000 marketable logs; although, if
the timber is small, it might take 60,000 separate pieces to actually
scale 20,000 standards, or markets. The Adirondack lumbermen always
estimate five 19 inch standards, or markets, as being equal to 1,000
feet of logs, board measure; hence a log-job or drive of 50,000 stand-
ards may be regarded as equivalent to 10,000,000 feet, board measure.
These figures will be more easily understood by an outside lumberman.
The idea of buying and selling logs using some certain size as the fixed
standard originated with Norman Fox, a pioneer lumberman of War-
ren County.

The methods and rules for the measurement of logs have never been
made the subject of any legislation in New York State. Laws have
been passed, however, providing for the appointment of a certain
number of inspectors and defining the number that may be appointed
in each of the various districts into which the State has been divided
for this purpose. In L805 an act was passed for the inspection of
lumber, rafts, timber, and spars, which allowed the inspectors to
charge 37£ cents per M, B. M., and 1-1 cents per 40 cubic feet. The
inspectors were required by this law to mark all lumber or timber
which they had inspected with a •"marking iron, " showing the number
of feet in each piece.

32 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

MODERN SAWMILLS.

The first sawmills in each locality throughout the State or colony
were of a primitive character, containing one upright saw for which
the power was furnished by an overshot water-wheel. In time an
additional saw was inserted in the gate, and so on until the modern
gang was evolved. (PI. VIII, fig. 1.)

The first gang-mill was built on the Hudson River at Fort Edward;
just when, the records do not show. It is asserted that the next one
was erected in ls4^ by Hinckley & Ballou, on West Canada Creek, in
the town of Russia. Herkimer County, but prior to this year there
were gangs running in the mills at Glens Falls, Sandy Hill, and Painted
Post.

In 1848 Henry S. Shedd and Marshall Shedd, jr., erected a gang-
mill in Lewis County at the lower falls of the Moose River, about 1
mile from its junction with the Black River. The gang in this mill
contained 32 saw-.

The first gang-mill on the Raquette River was built at Norwood, in
1851, by Morgan, Rosekrans & Adsit.

For many years after their introduction sawmills were operated by
water-power exclusively. Their owners, having secured the best
mill-sites on our rivers, did not need to run their mills by steam.
"Water-power was cheaper, and many of the largest gang-mills in
New York use it to-day.

The large mills have not changed materially in the last forty years.
In 1860 there were several in New York that ran five or six gates;
say three gangs, a slabbing gang, and two English mills. a

Some used a Yankee gang instead of a slabber, and in the large
mills, where two or more stock gangs were in use, one of them would
contain about 36 saws, set for inch boards, while another would be
hung with a smaller number, set for plank. Such a mill — six gates —
would cut about 15,000,000 feet per year, running night and day, with
an occasional shut-down for low water.

Steam mills as a class used a large circular saw (PI. VII, fig. 2),
although of late vears there are mills in New York, as elsewhere, which
run both circulars and gangs, to which band-saws have recently been
added. (PI. VII, fig. 1.) It is difficult to find any records showing when
the first steam sawmill was built in New York State. A sawmill driven
by steam power was built in 1830, in the town of Newark Valley, Tioga
County, by Chester Patterson and Jonathan Day, which employed
about 3<> men. The engine had a walking beam, such as is used on
steamboats.

In 1833 George Kirby erected a steam sawmill in the town of
Nichols, Tioga County.

a The English mill is an ordinary square gate or frame containing one or two
upright saws, with a 16-foot carriage that gigs back.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1.— Modern Band Saw. Tupper Lake, N. Y.

Fig. 2.— Circular Saw, Tupper Lake. N. Y.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VIII.

Fig. 1.— Modern Gang Saw, Tupper Lake, N. Y.
The largest mill in the State, operating two gang saw*, two bands, and two circulars.

Fig. 2.— Jack Ladder, with endless Chain.

TANNERIES METHODS OF LUMBERING. 33

In 1842 Dexter and Daniel Davis built one in the town of Caton,
Steuben County. In 1844 a steam sawmill was erected in the town of
Hammond, St. Lawrence County, by James E. Lyon. The first steam
mill in Erie County was built at Tonawanda in 1847 by Col. L. S.
Payne. In 1849 one was started by Kitts & Broadway in the town of
Denmark, Lewis County.

TANNERIES.

Although the lumberman has little in common with the tanner, the
demands of the latter had a material influence on that part of the
lumber industry which belonged to the hemlock trade. To-day hem-
lock lumber finds a ready market, and at a price equal to that paid for
spruce not many j^ears ago. But a large portion of the Hemlock in
this State was cut to supply the demand for bark only, the logs being
left in the woods to decay and waste. This was particularly the case
in the Catskill counties, where this species was more abundant than
elsewhere in the State. Only the most accessible of the timber was
hauled to the mills.

Bark-peeling in the Catskills ceased prior to 1870, and the great
tanneries at Phoenicia, Woodland, Shandaken, Big Indian, and Pratts-
ville had to abandon their business for lack of bark. The tannery at
Prattsville, owned by Zadoc Pratt, was one of the largest in the State.
Here 60,000 sides of sole leather were tanned and 6,000 cords of bark
consumed annually for twenty -five years. Over 6,000,000 feet of
hemlock was cut each 3 7 ear to furnish bark for this tannery alone, the
greater part of the logs being left to rot after they were peeled.

The principal men in the tannery business in the Catskill region
were Col. H. D. Snyder, Phoenicia; James Simpson, Phoenicia;
Pratt & Sampson, Shandaken, and Zadoc Pratt, Prattsville. In 1865,
according to the State census, there were 820 tanneries in New York;
to-day there are not a dozen all told.

METHODS OF LUMBERING.

The present system of logging and lumbering has been evolved from
the knowledge and experience gained by lumbermen in the early years
of the industry. Many improvements have been made in tools and
mechanical appliances; men are now better housed, fed, and paid; but
the general principles, on which the business is conducted to-da}', remain
the same as in the days of the pioneers. Hence a description of the
manner in which the work is conducted at the present time will give
some idea of the methods employed a century ago. a

"A good description of life in the lumber camps as it existed many years ago may
be found in the interesting volume. Forest Life and Forest Trees, by John S. Springer.
185t>. New York: Harper & Brothers.

25193— No. 34—0^ 3

34 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK,

The experienced lumberman usually prefers to run his own camps,
hiring- a foreman to look after the work during his temporary absence;
but a large portion of the timbering to-day is done by jobbers under
contract. For example, a lumberman, landowner, or sawmill man, as
the case may be, decides to lumber some certain tract. He lets a con-
tract to cut the logs of a particular species on the tract, and deliver
them to some point on a railroad, or on the banks of .some stream, or
upon some lake, whence they can be floated to the mill. This is called
letting a log-job, and the man who contracts to do the work is called
a jobber. In some places the contract is let by the thousand feet; in
the Adirondack* it is usually let by the standard. The agreement is
usually written in duplicate and signed by both parties.

The jobber commences operations by the erection of his logging
camps, which are located on the tract in the most advantageous posi-
tions for removing the timber which is to be cut. The ""bodies" of
the camp are usually made of long logs, or sticks of timber rolled up
and "notched" at the corners to hold them firmly in place. The
cracks between the logs are firmly chinked with moss to keep out the
cold. The roof is usually constructed with small pole rafters, covered
with boards, these being covered with heavy tar paper. If the camp
is to be used for several seasons, they sometimes shingle it with a
cheap grade of shingles. A "tote'' road is cut through the woods
to the camp-site, over which the necessary boards, supplies, etc.,
are hauled. Bunks, tables, and partitions are constructed of rough
boards. In early times no floors were laid, the earth being leveled off
for that purpose. At the present time nearly all camps have floors
made of boards or logs flattened. On the larger jobs the camps are
built to accommodate from 80 to 100 men.

There is generally one large building, with an attic fitted up with
tiers of bunks for a sleeping room, the ground floor containing the
cook room and dining room combined, fitted up with long board tables
on which the meals are served. (PI. IX.) One end of this room
is partitioned off for a "men's room," where the crew sit evenings,
smoking, reading, singing, grinding their axes, telling stories, etc.,
before climbing the ladder to their night's rest in the bunk room.
(PI. X.) In many Adirondack camps at present they have a man
cook, with an assistant known as the "cookee." But for many years
women have been employed in camps as cooks, hence the name "men's
room," for the crew are not allowed in the cook room except at meal
time. Another log building, one story only, serves as a barn for the
horses, and as a storehouse for the hay and oats. A blacksmith is an
indispensable man in a logging camp, so a log building of suitable
size is put up for his use, in which are a forge and all the tools for
shoeing horses, mending chains, and repairing sleds. In the larger
camps where a big job is being carried on, an additional building known

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IX.

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Plate X.

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METHODS OF LUMBEKING. 35

as the office is erected for the convenience of the foreman, the log-
sealers, and the clerk, and as a store for the sale of such necessary
articles as shoes, stockings, mittens, tobacco, etc. (See frontispiece.)

The ''tote" road having- been put in a fairly passable condition, the
jobber hauls in his stock of provisions, tools, and feed for his teams;
and he is soon followed by straggling groups of hardy looking men,
some of whom, having spent their previous earnings in some metrop-
olis of the wilderness, have no alternative other than another lono-
sojourn in tne lumber camps.

If the contract of the jobber includes hemlock and bark peeling,
work begins in the earl} T summer; for the bark will peel only from
May 20 to August 20, or thereabouts. In this work each man is
assigned his particular task. The best axmen are detailed for the
felling of the large hemlocks. Others girdle with their axes the fallen
tree trunks at intervals of 4 feet, and these are followed by men with
11 spuds "—iron tools with which they peel or pry loose the bark. The
first "ring," the one at the base of the tree, is taken off before the
tree is felled; otherwise the cutting at the stump would spoil this piece
of bark. Another gang works as '•swampers," in piling and ranking
the bark ready for hauling.

With the approach of autumn the sap ceases to flow; the bark con-
sequently sticks to the tree, and the. work of peeling is ended for the
year. The lumberman now turns his attention to cutting the spruce,
pine, and balsam logs, and the forest echoes with the crash of falling
trees. In early years all logs were chopped, but at present, for
economic reasons, it is considered far better to saw them. There are
men who show wonderful expertness in cutting a stump so the tree
will fall exactly where it is wanted, some of them being able to stick
up a stake as a mark, and to drive it into the ground with the falling
tree. Some such skill is necessary in order to prevent the tree from
; ' lodging" in another as it falls, to avoid piling it on down timber,
and to avoid breaking young and valuable trees which may be stand-
ing near. .

While the sawers are busy felling and cutting up the trees into logs,
others are employed in lopping off the limbs from the logs, and pre-
paring the skidding trail for the teams that haul the logs to the skid-
ways. (PI. XI, fig. 1.) The men cutting off the limbs are called " gut-
termen;" those driving the teams "skidders." The logs are rolled
into huge tiers on the skidways, ready to be loaded upon sleighs when
the snow comes. (PI. XII, PI. XIII, and PI. XIV, Hg. 1.) The skids were
formerly cut from small spruce and were left lying in the woods to decay.
At present, owing to improved methods and the increased value of the
timber, hardwood skids are used if practicable. Whenever neces-
sary to use softwood skids, after the logs have been removed they
are cut up into the proper lengths, scaled, and hauled to the landings.

36 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

While on the skidways the logs are measured, or " scaled, " as it is
termed, the "scaler" taking the diameter of each log inside the bark
at the top end and tallying it down in his book, after which a man
with a marking hammer stamps the logs on both ends with the owner's
mark. (PI. XI, fig. 2.) The scaler generally has an assistant, for logs
in large piles must be measured at both ends in order to determine
which is the top, the bod\^ of the log being out of sight. Crooked or
rotten logs are cut or "docked"' in measurement enough to offset the
defects.

While the cutting and skidding is going on the jobber usually em-
ploys a portion of his crew building roads from the skidways to the
main road, which in turn leads to the lake or river bank where- the
logs are to be unloaded. A diagram of the roads on a big lumber job
would resemble a tree with subdividing branches, although a somewhat
crooked one, owing to the curves and windings of the ravines or de-
pressions down which the roads must go. This laying out of roads is
an important part of the work, for upon the skill and judgment exer-
cised much of the profit in the job depends. All necessary roads must
be built, but unnecessary ones must be avoided. The jobber must
exercise no little engineering skill in selecting a line that will reach all
his skidways and at the same time preserve a practicable grade. It
should be downhill all the way from the starting point, so that large
loads can be hauled, and yet not so steep as to shove a team over the
bank. Skill and experience are called for in the construction of side-
hill or dugway roads, in bridge building, and in corduroying swamps.

The camps having been built, the bark peeled and ranked, and the
skidways piled high with logs (PI. XIII), upon the first deep snow the
hauling commences. The roads are sprinkled from a large water tank,
drawn on a sleigh, until a good ice bottom is formed, while on the
steep grades sand and gravel are thickly spread to retard the speed of
the loaded sleighs. Soon the landing or banking ground becomes a
scene of activity. Teams drive up in quick succession to be unloaded,
binding chains are unfastened by the unloaders, and the huge loads
roll off the sleighs with a bumping, thumping noise as the logs rebound
from the frozen earth.

The teamsters vie with each other in the size of their loads; and
with the wide "bunks" now in use, iced roads, and heavy teams, a
pyramid of logs is rolled up on the sleigh at the skidways until the
driver, astride on the top log, is perched 10 feet or more above the
ground. (PI. XIV, fig. 2.) Some of the "champion" loads contain
from 5,000 to 6,000 feet, although smaller ones are the general rule.
A teamster is expected to make a specified number of trips each
day, according to the length of the haul, which varies in most jobs
from 1 to 4 miles, sometimes more. He must needs go to sleep early,
because he must be up long before da3 T light, feed his team, get his

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XI.

Fig. 1.— Cutting Spruce Logs, Hamilton County.

Fig. 2.— Measuring and marking Logs on the Skids.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XII.

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Plate XIII.

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Plate XIV.

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METHODS OF LUMBEKING. 37

breakfast, and be off on the road while the stars are still shining- clear
and cold in the winter sky.

The average wages paid in the lumber camps of northern New York
run about $28 per month, including board, with a distinction in favor
of first-class men, to whom higher wages are paid. The jobbers are
quick to recognize a good hand, and a man is paid what he can earn.

With the delivery of the stipulated number of logs at the river
bank the jobber has finished his contract and "goes to town" to set
tie up with his employer. The men have been paid off and have taken
their way to their homes or to some village, where too many of them
soon part with their hard-earned wages. Old grudges are fought out,
and not infrequently some luckless hero of the camp spends his vaca-
tion in the count}- jail. But as a class they are honest, brave, and
industrious, reflecting credit on the great industry with which their
life and labor are so closely identified.

When the spring thaw, with its warm south winds and rains, begins
to loosen the ice in the upland streams and lakes, the boss river-driver
collects his crew of stalwart, daring men, and again they start for the
woods, where the thousands on thousands of logs are piled ready for
the spring flood. Before the ice has fairly ceased running the logs
are rolled into the water and the drive is on its way. Some of the
men are stationed along the shores to prevent the logs from lodging
or floating into ba} T s or setbacks; some stand at the heads of the bars
or islands, where, with pike-poles they shove off the logs that might
stop there and form a jam; others follow at the tail or rear of the
drive and clear up the shore of such pieces as may have drifted out of
the current and been left behind. Then there is the cook, most indis-
pensable of all, who follows in the rear along the bank, pitching his
tent from time to time in convenient places where the hungry crew
can get their meals. (PI. XV.) When the freshet is subsiding and
the water falling rapidly so that the logs stick on every bar and along
the shore, a splash dam is opened, and with the oncoming flood the
work is resumed with all its interesting, active scenes.

At times, in some crooked, rock} T stream, a jam is formed and thou-
sands of logs are wedged fast in the channel, held back by some one
log firmly braced against an impediment. Then occurs a thrilling
scene as the foreman calls for volunteers to break the jam. There is
always a prompt response. Two or more daring fellows, impelled by
pride in their work, take their lives in their hands, and. with an ax
and handspikes, make their way over the treacherous logs to the head
of the jam. Behind them are thousands of logs, filling- the angry
stream from bank to bank, piled thickly to the bottom, in all shapes,
tossing, tumbling, and leaping in the air as tin 1 dammed -up torrent
forces them about in wild confusion. Beneath the men is the swaying,
locking, unstable mass, somewhere in. the midst of which is the log

38 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

which forms the key to the position. The balance of the crew of
drivers gather on the bank below, where they watch with intense
anxiety the men who have volunteered to break the jam. They note
every motion of the volunteers as they coolly and undauntedly proceed
with their work. The critieal moment is close at hand. There is a
little more prying Avith the handspikes, a few more blows with the
ax. and then suddenly the huge, threatening mass begins to move.
Above the sound of the foaming waters a warning shout goes up from
the men standing on the bank, and then, leaping from log to log, as
the jam "breaks," the brave fellows reach the shore in safety amid the
applauding cheers of their comrades; or. it may be, as a cry of horror
breaks from the crew, one loses his foothold and disappears beneath
the terrible, grinding mass, crushed and torn to a mere semblance of
humanity. His body is found later in the river below, and another
chapter is added to the unwritten records of heroism to be related in
the next year's camps by his former companions, who. in subdued
tones, tell the story of the man who lost his life on such a stream last
spring.

So amid scenes of toil and danger the work is done. The drive is
safely inclosed in the big boom at the mills, and the job is completed.
(PI. XVI.)

There is probably no industry which involves so many varied details
as the business of lumbering; none which requires so close attention
at every stage of the work; and none in which intelligence, strict
economy, and. above all, thorough experience, are so necessary to prof-
itable results. Failures in it have been so many that no one should
undertake it who has not within him these specified requisities to suc-
cess.

MODERN IMPROVEMENTS.

Some of the more important changes that have taken place in lum-
bering methods, mainly within the last century, are worth noting.

The chopper no longer uses a single-bitted ax. The tree is sawed,
not chopped, into logs of the required length. In cutting down the
tree a crosscut saw is used instead of an ax. The forester in charge
of the job insists that a!) trees be cut as close to the ground as possi-
ble to save the timber lost in a high stump. On some jobs the logs
are skidded by wire ropes and steam power. Iced roads, easy grades,
wide "bunks," and attention to details enable teams to haul much larger
loads of logs. In some places water-slides, miles in length, render log
hauling unnecessary. Logs are placed on cars by steam loaders, lifted
from lakes or streams by steam jack-works (PI. VIII, fig. 2), and
taken to the mills on railroads instead of by driving down the rivers.
The introduction of the planing mill a built up a new and distinct branch

a The Wood worth planing machine was patented in 1828, and the patent was
extended twice.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XV.

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Plate XVI.

Fig. 1 .— Raquette Pond and piling Ground.

Fig. 2.— The Refuse burner for the disposal of Slabs, Edging, and Sawdust.

"captains of industry." 39

of the lumber business. In modern sawmills we find the oscillating
gang-, circular saws with inserted teeth, mechanical appliances for
handling logs, live rollers, and 'that most profitable of all improve-
ments, the band-saw.

Until recent years the word " forest" was seldom heard except when
used rhetorically. It belonged to poetry and literature. The lumber-
men and the people used the word ' ' woods " instead. People lived in the
backwoods, went into the woods, came out of the woods, or were lost
in the woods— never the forest. People spoke of the North Woods,
the South Woods, the "Nine-mile" Woods, and the Shattygee (Cha-
teaugay) Woods.

But now we hear the words forest and forestry. And in chronicling
the improvements in the lumber industry of New York State mention
must be made of the intelligent, conservative methods recently intro-
duced in the management of public and private woodlands by profes-
sional foresters, whose working plans insure the preservation of the
forests and the perpetuation of the timber supply.

"CAPTAINS OF INDUSTRY."

In recording the rise and progress of the lumber business, some
passing tribute, at least, should be paid to the memory of the men
who were prominently identified, with this important factor in the
development of the wealth and resources of the State. Thev were
men of both physical and mental vigor, possessed of sturdy virtues
that made them respected, not only in the communities where they
lived, but wherever they were known. They had a keen sense of
honor and fair dealing that made them known and described as men
whose "word was as good as their bond "—a common, homely expres-
sion, but one carrying praise that was well deserved. The grass has
been growing on their graves for many years, but their memory is
still cherished, their influence for good is still felt, and the world is
better for their having lived.

Among the men now dead and gone who were prominently con-
nected with the lumber business on the upper Hudson, mention should
be made of Abraham Wing, a James D. Weston, John J. Harris.
Albert N. Cheney, Lewis L. Amies. Walter (leer, Orlin Mead, George
San ford. Orson Richards. Augustus Sherman. James Morgan. Charles
H. Faxon, and Lemon Thomson.

On the Raquette River: Edward King. Ralph Pomerov, Charles
Pearson. George Richards, Matthias Vickery. James H. Carpenter,

a " .Mr. Wing, born in 1791, had the foresight and judgment requisite for Improving
the golden chance by bringing to market the splendid pines with which the grea<
Brant Lake tract abounded. This rich ami extensive lumber region, previously
operated by the Fox Brothers, Alanson and Norman, had come into the possession
of parties in Tmy, who intrusted its management toMr. Wing." (History of Queens-
bury, by A. W. Iloiden, M. D. (ill nP Kails: ]S19.)

40 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

Edward W. Hutching*, Lyman H. Wilcox, Harrison Plummer, A. M.
Adsit. and E. H. Rosekrans.

On the Tioga River: Deacon Simeon Hammond. Abijah Weston.
William C. Bronson. William B. Stevens. Benjamin Harrower. and
Julius Tremaine.

On the Saranac River: Senator Christopher F. Norton. Almon
Thomas. James Hammond. David H. Parsons, Wales Parsons. Hart-
well Brothers. O. A. Tefft. and Loren Ellis."

In western New York: John G. Mersereau. of Portville. and the
Weston Brothers, of Olean.

WOODPULP.

Within twenty years the logging industry in northern New York
has been materially affected by the demand for material necessary in
the manufacture of woodpulp. an industry of comparatively recent
development. Ground pulp, obtained by holding blocks of wood
against a grindstone, was first made in this country in 1867, at Stock-
brido-e. Mass. Chemical mills, in which the fiber is reduced by the
action of acids under steam pressure, were introduced about the same
time. Now there are 2H3 mills, mechanical and chemical, in the
United States, of which 1(>l ; are located in New York. Wisconsin
comes next with 37. and Maine has 30.

At first the New York mills used poplar only. This was deemed a
desirable condition by our foresters, because this species does not
appear to be available for any other purpose, while at the same time
it is the kind of tree with which nature most quickly reforests burned
areas in the Adirondacks. But poplar was soon discarded in favor of
spruce, to which have been added within the last live years some of the
other conifers, the process of manufacture having been improved so
that a satisfactory fiber is now being obtained from Hemlock, pine, and
Balsam.

The effect on timber cutting was soon evident, Where the lumber-
men formerly took nothing less than two-log trees, leaving nearly all
that were 12 inches or less in diameter on the stump, the woodpulp
men cut all the trees of certain species, large and small. This close
cutting of spruce and other kinds left no provision for future growth,
and thinned the forest so severely in places that further damage was
inflicted by wind and ice storms. The river-drives, which were for-
merly composed of fair-sized logs, were mixed thickly with smaller
logs, and on some streams where pulpwood only was being driven,
the drives were entirely made up of 4-foot lengths. The methods
employed in cutting pulp timber differ somewhat from those used

"For interesting and valuable facts relating to the history of lumbering in the
Saranac Valley, see paper read by Hon. EverittC. Baker before the Plattsburg Insti-
tute January 14, 1901, and printed in the Plattsburg Sentinel January 18, 1901.

Bui 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE XVII.

Fig. 1.— Beginning of Water Slide. The rolling Bank.

Fig. 2.— The Slide built along slanting Rock.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XVIII.

Fig. 1 .—Asleep at his Post— waiting for a Jam.

Fig. 2.— A Dash.

Bui. 34, Bureau of Forestry, U. S Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XIX.

Fig. 1 .— A Plunge. End of Water Slide, Ausable River.

Fig. 2.— Four-foot Pulpwood logs. At Rest at last.

WOODPULP. 41

in getting out logs for sawmills. Where no forestry is practiced,
the very small trees, as well as large ones, are cut. They are
sometimes sawed into short lengths of 4 feet, thus making the
work of handling the timber easier, although as the logs are too
small to sustain a man's weight it makes the river-driving harder.
It is usually considered more advantageous to cut the timber in
lengths of 12, 14, and 16 feet. If it has to be driven and sorted
from other timber this is undoubtedly the best method. Formerh T
only the small trees and the top logs were used for pulpwood, large
timber being reserved for the sawmills and cut into usual lengths; but
as the demand for woodpulp increased the stumpage became more
valuable for that purpose, and on some tracts all the spruce timber,
both large and small, was cut for pulpwood. The largest spruce in
the Adirondacks, so far as known (41 inches in diameter on the stump),
was cut for pulpwood. On some pulp jobs the bark is peeled from
the trees in the woods in order to save freight, and as the bark has no
commercial value it is left where the peeling or "rossing" is done.
A mass of dry bark-strippings, covering the ground thickly in places,
greatly increases the danger from fire. Much of the pulp timber in
the Adirondacks is hauled directly to some railway station, and from
there is shipped to the mills, as at the present market prices it will
bear transportation a long distance. In some places the pulp logs are
driven down some stream into a lake or pond near a railroad, where
by means of steam jack-works they are loaded on cars. In other
localities a long haul by teams is dispensed with by the construction of
water-slides or wooden troughs several miles in length, through which
a shallow stream of water carries the stipks to the railroad or to some
river, whence they are driven to the pulp mills in the same manner as
in a log drive.

In the vicinit}' of Benson mines, St. Lawrence Count}', there is a
water-slide 3 miles long for convey ing pulpwood to the railroad. This
trough is 24 inches wide at the top and 10 at the bottom, with a depth
of 20 inches. It is capable of moving 60 cords per hour. The com-
pany operating this slide had at one time a pile of pulpwood 1,000 feet
long, 26 feet high, and 40 feet wide, all of which had been transported
from the woods to the railroad by this novel method. They had also
an additional slide in which sawed lumber was transported from the
mill to the railroad. The J. & J. Rogers Pulp Company, of Ausable
Forks, Essex County, N. Y., have on one of their jobs a water-slide 7
miles long, by which their pulp stock is carried to the Ausable River,
where it is driven to their mills. (Pis. XVII, XVIII, XIX.)

In 1898 the total cut of logs in the Adirondack forests amounted to
544,234,207 feet, of which 229,581,918 feet was consumed in the pulp
mills.

A peculiar effect of the woodpulp industry is the rise in value of

42 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NE w YORK.

spruce stumpage. This has increa ed beyond the point warranted by
the market value of the sawed lumber. Spruce stumpage is now
worth so much for woodpulp that the sawmill men are unwilling- to
pay the price demanded for the standing timber, and unless there is
some change in market conditions this species will not enter so largely
hereafter into building operations, its place being taken to a great
axtent by Hemlock or cheap pine.

VOLUME OF BUSINESS.

The lumber industry of New York attained its maximum develop-
ment at some time prior to 1865, when there were, according to the
State census of that year, 3,963 sawmills. Perhaps three-fourths of
this number were mills equipped with one saw only, none of which cut
over 100,000 feet in a year.

From the Tenth United States Census, 1880, it appears that there
were then 2,822 mills in New York, with an invested capital of $13,-
230,931, giving employment to 17,509 men, and paying out annually
$2,162,972 in wages. The combined lumber product of these mills
amounted in 1880 to 1.118,220,000 feet, board measure, not including
lath, shingles, and staves.

Within the next twenty years there was a great, decrease in the pro-
duction, the timber supply having been exhausted in the Adirondack
and Catskill forests. There are not 150 mills in the State to-day with
an annual output of over 100,000 feet. The production is now con-
lined almost wholly to the Adirondack region, the mills which are
stocked from there having sawed in 1899 the following amounts:

Spruce feet B. M. . 148, 203. 491

Hemlock do 46, 545, 772

Pine do 33, 132, 81 17

Hardw< tod do 24, 296, 554

Total do. . . . 252, 178, 624

Shingles number. . 33, 619, 000

Lath do 49, 329, 090

To the amount of sawed lumber should be added 195,568,623 feet of
logs that went to the pulp mills, making the total forest output of
northern New York that year 117.717.217 feet.

There are several small sawmills in the Catskill counties, with a few
others scattered throughout the western part of the State, their com-
bined product not exceeding 60,000,000 feet. The advocates of forest
preservation and the protection of our economic resources need no
better argument than is contained in the figures showing the great
decline in this industry within the last twenty years.

Editor's xote. — The author, in his report as superintendent of for-
ests for the State of New York (contained in the Seventh Annual
Report of the New York Forest, Fish, and Game Commission, Jan-

PKOFITS LUMBER MARKETS. 43

uary 30, 1902), places the output of northern New York for 1900 at
533,339,072 feet, of which 230,649,292 feet was spruce for the pulp
mills; the combined product of the Adirondack and Catskill forests
for the same year at 651,135,308 feet; the number of employees in the
sawmills of northern New York at 8,617, with annual wages aggre-
gating $1,846,930; the number of employees in the pulp mills at 9,382,
with annual wages aggregating $3,040,478.

The preliminary summary of the Twelfth Census concerning saw-
mills, planing mills (operated in connection with sawmills), and
timber camps, places the total amount of timber from all sources
sawed in New York State in 1900 at 878,448,000 feet, and the value at
$12,364,362.

PROFITS OF THE INDUSTRY.

In many localities within the State there are lumbermen who have
amassed large fortunes and attained prominence on account of their
wealth. Their well-known success has created an impression that the
lumber business is an exceptionally profitable one. This, however, is
not the case. There is very little money in buying logs, sawing them,
and marketing the product. The rich lumberman, in almost every
instance, owned large tracts of timber land, and his wealth represents
the appreciation in value of this kind of property; in his ordinary
business — that of the logging camp and sawmill — he made a fair living
profit, and nothing more. People seldom make much money in log-
jobbing or in sawing "custom logs." The lumbermen who owned no
timber lands, and had to bu}^ their logs or stumpage, were obliged to
do business on a narrow margin of profit. Thorough experience, com-
bined with the utmost economy in connection with every detail, was
necessary to avoid a failure. Of this latter class some, through thrift
and business tact, secured a comfortable competence before old age
ended their activity; some barely held their own; while, as in all other
kinds of business, the percentage of failures far exceeded that of success.
But the men who owned the forest lands from which their mills were
stocked could keep their business going on a low market that would
ruin the operators who had to buy logs, saw the stock, and depend
upon the market for a margin. The landowners could run their mills
during a period of financial depression, and, although they were getting
nothing for their stumpage, were always on hand and in the market
when there came a rise in prices.

LUMBER MARKETS OF NEW YORK.

In addition to the ordinary Lumber business connected with forest
and sawmill, there were in the State of New York great lumber
markets or distributing points where lumber was sold, not only the
product of the State, hut immense shipments from Canada and the

44 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

Northwest as well. The two principal markets were at Albany and
Tonawanda.

Albany was the center of a great lumber trade sixty years ago, and
at one time surpassed all other points in the amount handled and
volume of business. In 1872 there were 43 wholesale firms, with
yards grouped in the "lumber district," who handled, in the aggre-
gate, 660.000,000 feet that year, their total sales amounting to over
$15,000,000. Over 1.500 men were employed in the yards unloading
and loading vessels, or in piling lumber, their total annual wages
exceeding $600,000. But owing to increased facilities for making
direct through shipments from the mills to the retailers, combined
with unfavorable discriminations in freight rates, the business at
Albany has declined so largely that the amount of lumber handled
this year will not exceed 200,000,000 feet. The White Pine from this
market is shipped chiefly to New England (including Boston, Newport,
Fall River, and Nantucket), to Long Island, the Hudson River towns.
New York City, the West Indies and South America, the Azores and
Africa, and Australia. The shipments of spruce are confined mostly
to Greater New York, Long Island, and Hartford.

Tonawanda. unlike Albany, is a market in which all the lumber han-
dled comes from outside the State — from the great pineries of the North-
western States and Ontario. Still, some mention of it seems pertinent
on account of the volume of the business done there. Next to Chicago
an< New York City, it is the greatest lumber market in the United States
or Canada. The entire stock received is reshipped by rail or canal to
other places, wherein it differs from Chicago and Greater New York, the
latter places consuming a large portion of their lumber receipts within
their own limit>.

The business at Tonawanda commenced in 1857, when its first cargo
of lumber was shipped from Canada by Brunson & Co. In 1865 it had
become an important point in the general lumber business of the coun-
try, and its trade increased steadily until 1890, when it attained its
maximum volume. In the latter year the receipts from the Great
Lakes at this port amounted to 718,650,900 feet, to which may be added.
13,039,600 lath and 52,232,300 shingles. Their combined values indi-
eate a business that year of over $16,000,000. The number of persons
employed— yard men, planing mill hands, stevedores, and office men —
is estimated at over 3,000, their aggregate annual wages exceeding
$1,500,000. But the shipments have declined materially within the
last ten years, the receipts in 1900 being reported at 396,429,483 feet.
This decrease is due to through shipments from the AVest of carload
lots direct to the retail yards in the Eastern States, and to disadvantages
in freight rates. Still, the lumber business at Tonawanda is immense,
employing a great many men and distributing a large amount of money
annually in wages; and, as a distributing point for New England and

LUMBER MARKETS OF NEW YORK. 45

the Middle States, it contributes materially to the commercial suprem-
acy of New York.

Oswego was also an important distributing- point, where a large
amount of Canadian lumber was handled and reshipped by canal. In
1870 the receipts of lumber at this port amounted to 289,315,329 feet.

The city of New York, owing to its export trade and large local
demand, is also the center of an immense lumber trade. In the year
1900 the total receipts of lumber from ocean, canal, river, and rail
aggregated 1,216,014,601 feet.

The lumber industry in this State has been affected to some extent
at different times by the tariff laws relating to Canadian imports.
Until recently the amount of lumber imported from Canada equaled
or exceeded the amount produced in the State; and the fact that New
York is a border State, with numerous entry ports on the lakes, already
in close proximity to the Canadian mills, and brought still nearer by
easy rail and water transportation, rendered its markets peculiarly
susceptible to foreign competition, and attracted thither the bulk of
the importation. In 1851 Hon. William L. Marcy, then Secretary of
State at Washington, made a reciprocity treaty with Canada, under
which lumber was admitted into the United States free of duty for ten
years. Since 1865 the duties on sawed lumber have varied, and in
some years have been withdrawn altogether. The present tariff
imposes a tax of $2 per 1,000 feet 1 on sawed lumber, which is equiva-
lent, on an average, to an ad valorem duty of about 13 per cent. 3
Under this impost the Canadian imports have fallen off one-half within
the last two years.

Such, in brief, is the history of lumbering and the lumber industry
in the State of New York brought down to the present time. It is
interesting to note that improved methods of lumbering and a con-
servative system of forestry have been introduced in the woodlands
of the State, which mark a distinct epoch in the history of the industry
and promise to make the forests a still more important and beneficent
factor in the economy of the Commonwealth. Already some of the
largest private timber tracts in northern New York are being lumbered
under a system that not only insures immediate profit, but makes
ample provision for forest preservation and a perpetual timber supply.
The cutting is restricted not only to certain species, but to a tixed
diameter, which leaves a good number of the same species as the basis
of another crop. Further provision for the future growth of mer-

a The present tariff, enacted in 1897, puts a duty of $2 per 1,000 feet on sawed
pine, spruce, hemlock, balsam, maple, birch, beech, elm, ash, and walnut; and a
duty of $1 per 1,000 feet on whitewood, sycamore, and basswood. Cedar, when
sawed, is admitted at 15 per cent ad valorem. On planed lumber an additional
charge is made of 50 cents per 1,000 feet for each side dressed; and 50 cents more
per 1,000 feet for tongued and grooved boards or flooring.

40 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

charitable timber is made by leaving, at suitable intervals, healthy
individuals to serve as seed trees in propagating a wind-sown crop of
seedlings in the openings. Economical methods of felling trees have
been introduced which protect the young growth and in addition yield
more timber per tree. New industries have arisen that are dependent
on forest products and utilize much of the material which heretofore
has gone to waste.

The work is placed under the charge of skilled foresters, who mark
each tree that is to be cut, and allow nothing cut that is not marked.
The protective functions of the forest are carefully guarded, and no
trees whatever are allowed to be cut on steep sidehills, or where a
cutting might result in windfalls, soil erosion, or denudation.

The great primeval forests owned by the State have been carefully
examined by competent foresters. Intelligent working plans have
been made under which the matured timber may be removed from
time to time and a permanent annual revenue secured to the State
whenever the present constitutional restrictions are removed. And
so, profiting by the lessons of the past and encouraged by the success
of the present, the great lumber industry of the State enters upon
another century of its existence with every promise that it will con-
tinue to add its full share to the honor and prosperity of the Common-
wealth.

APPENDIX.

THE ROLL OF PIONEER LUMBERMEN.

It may fairly be assumed that in each locality throughout the State the commence-
ment of the lumber industry was coincident with the erection of the first sawmill;
all work before that was confined to individuals who labored to supply their per-
sonal needs only. But with the building of a mill there ensued a combination of
labor to supply a general demand, which constituted to some extent what is known
as lumbering operations.

In the statistics 'here appended will be found the year when the first settler located
in each town mentioned, the list including the greater part of the State; also, the
year in which the first sawmill was built in that town, together with the name of
the pioneer who built it. Most of these towns of course had no existence then as
towns, and the date given here means that the foundation of the first settlement or
sawmill occurred at that time in a locality which to-day is within the town named.

The historical facts here given were compiled by the author from the various town
and county records in the State Library at Albany. Much valuable information
relating to the first settlement of each town was found in Hough's Gazetteer of the
State of New York, and some interesting facts connected with colonial times were
obtained from Dr. O'Callaghan's Documentary History of New York.

As this part of the work necessitated a careful examination of the early history of
each one of the 977 towns in the State, it will be seen that the task required no
small amount of time and patience. This information, however, will be of little
interest to the general reader; and the question may arise whether the resuit is
worth the cost. In answer it should be said that any history of the lumber industry
must properly commence with the beginning of that industry, and that there was
no other way to determine when it began except by ascertaining the date when the
first sawmills were put in operation in the various localities.

It may be noticed that the list is incomplete as regards some of the towns in the
Hudson and Mohawk valleys. An exhaustive examination was made of the town
and colonial records relating to that region, but with only partial success, as but
little mention is made in them of the erection of sawmills, or of the lumber industry.
These valleys, however, contained the oldest settlements, and from their borders
the wave of civilization spread outward through the State, its advance being marked
everywhere by the advent of the lumberman and his mill. Next came the church
and the schoolhouse.

The beginnings of the lumber industry in (he Stale of New York.

County.

Albany

Town.

Albany

Berne

Coeyniuns

Knox

New Scotland
Watervliel ...
Westerlo

First
settle-
ment.

First
saw-
mill.

1664

1G30

17f>0

1755

1673

1651

ITS'.)

1800

IToii

1760

1700

177:.

1763

1795

Built by—

Jacob Janse Flodder.
Jacob Weidman.
Hans Junsen.
Amos Crary.
Uziab Conger.
Shaker Colony.
Lobdell & Baker.

47

48

HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The beginnings of the lumber industry in lite Stale of New York — Continued.

County

Town.

First
settle-

Allegai:

Broome.

Cattaraugus

First
saw-

ment. mill

Alfred 1807

Allen 1820

Alma 1833

Almond 17%

Amity 1804

Andover 1795

Angelica 180*2

Belfast 1803

Bi rdsall 1816

Bolivar 1819

Burns* 1805

Caneadea 1803

CYnterville 1808

Clarksville 1822

Cuba 1814

Friendship 1806

Genesee 1S23

Granger 1816

Grove 1818

Hume 1807

Independence 1798

New Hudson 1820

Rushford 1808

1805
1817
1801
1816
1825
1812
1791
1784
1785
1788
1788
1791
1787
1785
1786
1820
1814
1820
1816
1810
1812
1815
1817

Scio

Ward

Wellsville

West Almond

Willing

Wirt

Barker

Chenango

Colesville

Conklin

Fenton

Lisle

Sanford

Vestal

Windsor

Allegany

Carrollton

Cold Spring

Cone wango

Dayton

East Otto

Ellicott ville

Farmersville

Franklin ville ' 1806

Freedom 181 1

Great Valley ; 1812

1806
18i5
1812

Hinsdale

Humphrey

Ischua

'The first deaths among the settlers in this town were those
by the fall of a tree, April 4, 1812, and his twin brother, killed i
same year.

Built by-

1821 E. S. Davis.
1820 Moses Treat.
1843 John W. Post.
1806 Phineas Stevens.

1806 Philip Church.

1819 Luther Strong.
1803 Philip Church.
1809 David Sanford.

1823 Hull & Peterson.

1822 Cowlea Brothers.
1813 David McCardy.

1816 John Hoyt.
1813 Blanchard & Hotehkiss

1832 Samuel King
1815 William Downer.
1815 Ebenezer Steenrod.

1820 Newman Crabtree.

1819 Isaac Van Xostrand.
John S. Culver.

1807 Roger Mills.

1800 John Cryder.
1829 James Davidson.
1815 Matthew P. Cady.

1822 Benjamin Palmer.

1818 Stephen Easton.
1803 Nathaniel Dyke.

1833 Enoch Hawks.
1829 Elijah Robinson.

1824 Alvin Richardson.

1801 Simeon Rogers.
1788 Henry French.
1792 Robert Harper.

1808 Robert Corbett.
1797 Elisha Pease.
17% Edward Edwards.
1791 Nathan Dean.
1795 Bethias Du Bois.
1797 Nathan Lane
1826 Reuben Lamberton.
1826 Marcus Leonard.

1820 Crook <fc Basson.

1819 Sampson Crooker.

1817 Silas Nash.

1823 Moses T. Beach.
1*2! orin Pitcher.

1824 James Worden.

1809 Henry Conrad.

1821 Enoch Howlett.
1 V 1J James Green.
1815 Lewis Wood.

] Foster B. Salisbury.

I 1814 A. M. Farwell.

of Jeremiah Gregory, who was killed

n the same manner, on September 17,

APPENDIX.

49

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New York — Continued.

County.

Cattaraugus .

Cayuga .

Chautauqua .

Chemung.

Chenango

Town.

Leon

Little Valley.

Lyndon

Machias

Mansfield

Napoli

New Albion..

Olean

Otto

Perrysburg. . .

Persia

Portville

Randolph

South Valley

Yorkshire

Brutus

Conquest b ...

Sterling

Throop

Arkwright . . .

Carroll

Charlotte

Cherry Creek

Ellery

Ellicott

Gerry

Hanover

Harmony

Kiantone

Mina

Poland

Pomfret

Villenova

WVstfield

Ashland

Baldwin

Big Flats

Catlin

Chemung

Erin

Horseheads . .

Southport

Van Etten ...

Veteran

Af ton

' lolumbufi

Green

Lincklaen

First
settle-
ment.

First
saw-
mill.

1819
1807
1808

1824
1809
1843

1813

1822

1817

1837

1818

1829

1818
1804

1836
1807

1816

1822

1815

1811

1814

1805

1807

1820

1823

1798

1801

1810

1814

1800

1808

1800

1808

1805

1817

1790

1798

1807

1818

1807

1811

1809

1810

1812

1824

1806

1808

1806

1808

1811

1819

1797

1804

1805

1810

1807

1816

1824

1805

1805

1804

1807

1810

1815

1801

1804

1788

1800

1813

1828

1787

1795

1816

LSL'7

1786

1790

1815

1824

1787

1805

1788

1798

1795

1800

1775

isii:,

1786

1791

1794

i :;»■.'

1795

L796

L795

L798

Built bv—

Ebenezer Collar.
David Powers.
Jason Sherman.
Andrew McBuzzell.
Clark Brothers.
James Wait.
Mathew Nealy.
Shepard & Thrall.
Isaac \V. Sherman.
Isaac Balcom.
Ahaz Allen.
Green & Dodge.
Thomas Harvey.
Quaker Colony.
Isaac Williams.
Lewis Putnam.

Twitchell.

John Cooper.
Prentice Palmer.
Benjamin Orton.
John Frew.
Samuel Sinclair.
William Kilbourn.
William Bemus.
Edward Works.
Hines A: Newton.
Abel Cleveland.
Reuben Slayton.
Robert Russell.
Alex Finley.
Dr. Thos. R. Kennedy.
Baker, Berry & < '■ >.
John Kent.
John McMahan.
Isaac Baldwin.
Elisha Hammond.
William Miller.
James Wheeler.
Maj. Wm. Wynkoop.«
McMillan Brothers.
Nathan Teal.
Col. Abraham Miller.
Isaac- Swartwood.

Teal.

Cooper A: Miner.
Job Vail.
Conrad sharp.
Catlin & Shipman.
Henry Ludlow.

Macdonough

» The mills did work for the white settlers on the usual terms, and furnished lumber for the Indians
free.
b In 1804 James Perkins built the first framed house, sawing out all the lumber with a whipsaw.

The building was still Btanding in 1859, a monument of persevering industry.

• Major Wynkoop built the first frame bouse In this town, the boards and timbers for which were
sawed out with a whipsaw,

25193— No. 34—02 4

50 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The beginnings < if the lumber industry in the State of New York — Continued.

County.

Town.

First
settle-
ment.

First
saw-
mill.

Built by-

1790

1788

1800

1797

1800

1794

1823

1789

1783

1818

1800

1796

1785

1765

1802

1794

1706

1661

1708

1794

1794

1792

1793

1770

1 7VJ

1774

1786

1784

1784

1779

1776

1773

1792

1763

1789

1772

1790

1780

1785

1700

1810

1800

1804

IMS

1808

1799

1810

1808

1807

1804

1808

1829

1805
1819
1806
1825
1787
1801
1850
1824
1804
1810
1769
1806
1801
1774
1665
1710

1816

1801

181]

1802
1790
1792
1800
1806
1799

1780
1799
1790
1805
1790
1795
1786

1740
1814
1801
1806
1822
1810
1SH4
1811
1809
1812
1803

1S11

1832

Job Vail.

Elisha Smith.

James Rush.

Smithville

Timothy Scoville.

Benjamin Mooers.

Thaddeus Mason.

Black Brook

Burt & Vanderwarker.

Champlain

Lieut, Plinv Moore.

Atwood Brothers.

Clinton

John McCov.

Ellenburg

John R. Murray.

George Perry.

Peru

John Cochra' .

Plattsburg

Count de Freydenburgh.

Isaiah Ferris.

Ezra Turner.

Col. William B. Whiting.

Frank Pieters Clayers.

Robert Livingston.

John Hunt.

Rockwell Brothers.

Daniel Edward.

Willet

Benianiin Wilson.

John Vaughn.

Matthew Russell.

William Rose.

Daniel Prentice.

Delhi

Oliver Peake.

Samuel Hutchinson.

Peake & Ward.
Col. John Harper.

Ezekiel Johnson.

Joseph Bushnell.

Middletown

Benjamin Akerly.

Ferris.

Carr.

Joseph Warn.

Tompkins

Jesse Dickinson, &

Walton

M. Goodrich.

Erie

Alden

Jacob Rutson.
John C. Rogers.

Amherst

John Thompson.

Phineas Stephens.

Brant

Samuel Butts.

Cheektowaga

Samuel Le suer.

Clarence

Asa Ransom.

Colden

Richard Burrum.

Quaker Colon v.

Rufus Eaton.

East Hamburg

David Eddv.

Eden

Elisha Welch.

Elma

1 Estabrook.

»Thismill, soon after its erection, was carried away by the famous "punkin flood" that inundated
the valleys of the Susquehanna and its tributaries in the fall of 1787. The cornfields were swept bare.
and the yellow pumpkins that thickly dotted the surface of the swollen streams were so conspicuous
that the descriptive name just mentioned survives among the household words in southern New York

The begin)

APPENDIX.
ings of the lumber industry in the state

)f New

York — Continued.

County.

Town.

First
settle-
ment.

First
saw-
mill.

Built by—

Erie

1N04
1807
1829
1809
1792
1804
1792
1783
1796
1798
1S04
1785
1802
1797
1769
1765
1803
1816
1796
1800
1810
1823
1794
1827
1802
1803
1800
1783
1785
1743
1760
1761
1791
1799
1806
1802
1801
1805
1807
1803
1801
1801
1S04
1801
17.S5
1760
1650
1695
1770

1815

1815

1828

1812

1802

1810

1814

1784

1798

1809

1807

1810

1812

1814

1772

1767

1812

1825

1797

1803

1830.

1823

1796

1827

1804

1803

1801

1810

1790

1808

1762

1773

1806

1806 .

1824

1804

1.S01
1811

1813
1809
1810
1811
[808
1810
1820
1808
1684
1750
its:;

Holland

Ephraim Woodruff.

Marilla

Jesse Barton.

Sardinia

Sumner Warren.

Chesterfield

Robert Hoyle.

Crownpoint

Allen Penfield.

Elizabethtown . .

Amos Rice.

Essex

Daniel Ross.

,Tav a .

William Mallorv.

Lewis

Asa Farnsworth.

Minerva

William Hill.

Moriah

Alexander Speneer.

North Hudson

Elihu Phelps.

Schroon (now Schroon Lake )

Ticonderoga 1 '

Joseph Richards.

Fox t t Huntington.

Willsboro

William Gilliland.

Reuben Sanford.

Franklin

Bellmont (now Belmont Center) ..

Roswell A. Weed.

David Mallorv.

James Welch.

Warren Ives.

James Duane.

William Gray.

McLenatham cfe Wells.

t

N. & J. Wood.

Appleton Foote.

Amos Welch.

Fulton

Duncan McMartin.

Cornelius Van Allen.

Henry Yannev.

Sir Wm. Johnson.

Mavfield ..

Do.

Henrv Cline.

Stratford

Martin Nichols.

Samuel Whitcomb.

Alexander

Rea & Fellows.

Joseph Ellicott.

Jared Merrill.

William Shepherd.

Amos Humphrey.

Elba

Horace Gibbs.

Oakfield

Christopher Kenvon.

Pembroke

Samuel Carr.

Stafford . .

Amos Stow.

Greene ..

Ashland

Marshall Lewis.

Ca i ro

Enoch Hyde.

Cat ski 1U-

nirk Tennisse Van Vechten.

< toxsackie

i 'asparus Bronk.

Jared smith.

»"In the vicinity of Upper Jay the lumber business was killed as early as L820 by the girdling of all
the trees to facilitate the clearing of the land." (Hist. r>>e\ Co . by H. P. Smith, 1885. Syracuse:
D. Mason & Co.)

'The French troops, while engaged in the construction of Fort Carillon, built a sawmill at the
outlet of Trout Brook, but it was destroyed soon after.

«A grist and saw mill combined. Robert Livingston, in a letter writte in 1712, says: "A little mill
atCatskill grind-- so coarse it can not be bolted."

52

HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New York — Continued.

Countv.

Greene

Hamilton

Herkimer

Jefferson

Lewis

Town.

First

settle-
ment.

» He built it for
land (800 acres?).
Long Lake.

b This mill was
Brown's Tract in

Greenville 1750

Haleott ( now Halcott Center) 1800

Hunter 1800

Jewett 1783

Lexington 1777

New Baltimore 1785

Prattsville 1712

Windham 1817

Arietta 1827

Benson

Hope 1790

Indian Lake 1834

Lake Pleasant 1795

Long Lake 1830

Morehouse 1833

Wells 1798

Danube 1730

Fairfield 1770

Fran k fort 1775

Litchfield 1789

Newport 1791

Norway 1786

Russia 1792

Stark (now Starkville) 1775

Webb* 1799

Wilmurt 1790

Winfield 1792

Adams 1800

Antwerp 1803

Brownville 1799

Champion 1797

Clayton 1802

Ellisburg 1797

Henderson 1799

Hounsfield 1800

Le Ray 1801

Lorraine 1802

Lyme 1801

Orleans 1806

Philadelphia 1804

Rodn.an 1801

Rutland 1799

Theresa 1810

Croghan 1828

Denmark 1800

Diana 1830

High Market 1814

Lewis 1799

Leyden 1794

Lowville 1797

Martinsburg 1801

a landowner named Hammond, receiving a
Under the terms of the contract, he also cu

First
saw-
mill.

1800
1820
1820
1795
1824
1800
1823
1817

1849
1795
1836
1833
1829
1799

1794
1806
1793
1793
1797
1776
1800
1790
1795
1802
1806
1800
1799
1804
1797
1807
1802
1802
1804
1803
1816
1805
1804
1802
1810
1830
1801
1833

1800
1795
1798
1803

Built bv-

Nathaniel Holmes.
Henry Hosford.
Roger Bronson.
Laban Andrews.
John Bray.
Charles Titus.

Smedburg.

Jared Clark.

Nathan Lobdell.

Wing Lumber Co.
— — Foster.
E. H. St. John.»
Andrew K. Morehouse.
Halsey Rogers.
Samuel Haupt.
Samuel Green.
John Hollister.

Taleott.

Benjamin Bowen.
Capt. David Hinman.
Benjamin Hinman.
Abraham Van Home.
Governor John Brown.
Arthur Noble.
Joseph Walker.
David Smith.
Silas Ward.
Gen. Jacob Brown.
Joel Mix.

Smith cfc Delamater.
Lyman Ellis.
Willis Fellows.
Augustus Sacket.
Benjamin Brown.
Frost.

Dr. Andrus.

Thos. & John Townsend

William Rice.

David Coffeen.

James D. Le Ray.

Somerville Stewart.

Nathan Munger.

Faskit Harri>.

James McVicker.

Joel Jenks.

Bela Butterfield.

Daniel Kelley.

Walter Martin,
stated sum of money and five lots of
t out the first road from Newcomb to

built at Old Forge by Governor John Brown, of Providence, R. I., the owner of
the Adirondacks.

APPENDIX.

53

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New 3 "ork— Continued.

County.

Lewis

Livingston

Madison .

Monroe .

ontgomery

New York
Niagara ..

Oneida

Town.

Montague

New Bremen

Osceola

Turin

Watson

West Turin

Avon

Conesus

Leicester

Lima

Livonia

North Dansville

Nunda

Ossian

Portage

Springwater

Cazenovia

De Ruyter

Eaton

Georgetown

Lebanon

Madison

Nelson

Smithville

Stockbridge

Sullivan

Greece

Henrietta

Ogden

Parma

Penfleld

Riga

Webster

Wheatland

Amsterdam

Canajoharie

Charleston

Florida

Glen

Minden

Root

Manhattan

Cambria

Lewis ton

Xewfane

Porter

Royal ton

Somerset

Wheatfleld

Wilson

Augusta

Ava

Boonville

Bridgewater ...

Camden

First
settle-
ment.

1846

1821

1838

1797

1800

1795

1785

1794

1789

1788

1792

1795

1806

1804

1810

1807

1793

1793

1793

1804

1792

1793

1794

1795

1791

1790

1792

1806

1802

1794

1801

1805

1805

1789

1716

1770

1737

1710

1705

1750

1770

1614

1800

1800

1807

1803

1803

1810

1802

1810

1793

1798

1795

1788

1796

First
saw-
mill.

1848
1826
1841
1799
1801
1796
1790
1804
1792
1796
1795
1796
1818
1809
1316
1809
1794
1807
1795
1806

1793
1800
1801
1794

1810

1811
1811

1808
1806
1810
1742
1770
1785
1750
1790
1740

1633
1806

1811
1816
1817
1822
1825
1815
1795
1801
1796

Built by—

S. P. Sears.
Charles Dayan.
William Roberts.
Eleazer House.
Isaac Puffer.
Nathaniel Shaler.
Timothy Hosmer.

1798

Ebenezer Allen.
Reuben Thayer.

Higby.

David Scholl.
Willoughby Lovell.
Nathaniel Porter.
Russel Messenger.
Samuel Hines.
John Lincklaen.
Joseph Rich.
Joshua Leland.
Mitchell Atwood.
Elisha Wheeler.
Henry W. Bond.
Jeremiah Clark.
Peter Smith.
Stockbridge Indians.
John G. Moyer.
Nathaniel Jones
Jonathan Smith.
William H. Spencer.
Jonathan Whitney.
Daniel Penfleld.
Samuel Church.
Caleb Lyon.
Peter Shaeffer, jr.
Sir Wm. Johnson.
Col. Hendrick Frey.
Judah Burton.
Philip Frederick.
Peter Quackenboss.

Fox.

Solomon Hamilton.
West India Co.
Joseph Hewett.
Joseph Howell.
James Van Horn.
John Clapsaddle.
Gad Warner.
John Randolph.
Col. John Sweeney.
Daniel Sheldon.
T. Cassaty.
Benjamin Jones.
Holland Land Co.
Major Farwell.
Jesse Curtis.

54

HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of Neiv York — Continued.

County.

Oneida

Onondaga

Ontario .

Orange .

Town.

First
settle-
ment.

West Bloomrield

Chester

Crawford

Montgomery

Newburgh

New Windsor ...

Wallkill

Warwick

Wawayanda

Orleans Barre

Clarendon

Gaines

Kendall

Ridgeway

Shelby

Oswego Albion

Amboy

Bovlston

Lee 1790

Manchester 1787

Marcy 179?.

Vienna a 1798

Westmoreland 1786

Camillus 1790

Cicero 1790

Clay 1793

Dewitt 1789

Elbridge 1793

Fabius 1794

Geddes 1794

Lafayette 1791

Lysander 1793

Manlius 1790

Marcellus 1794

Onondaga 1787

Pompey Hill 1792

Skaneateles 1793

Spafford | 1794

Tully ! 1795

Van Buren 1792

Canadice 1807

East Bloomrield 1789

Farmington 1789

Gorham 1789

Naples 1790

Phelps 1789

Richmond 1789

Seneca i 1787

south Bristol 1789

Victor ! 1789

1789
1751
1740
1722
1709
1685
1767
1719
1738

1811
1811
1808
1812
1809
1810
1812
1805
1810
1790
1792

First
saw-
mill.

1796
1788
1825
1801
1790
1806
1823
1811
1792
1797
1800
1825
1795
1807
1793
1796
1793
1796
1796
1810
1810

1790

1795
1807
1792
1795
1795
1793
1795
1792
1798
1810
1751
1768
1784
1728
1776
1760
1760
1816
1811
1813
1819
1805
1812
1813
1822
1822
1795
1814

Built by-

David Smith.
Captain Casey.
John F. Allen.
Ambrose Jones.
Jonathan Dean. b
Munro & Wheeler.
Freeman Hotchkiss.
Abraham Young.
Asa Danforth.
William Stevens.
Thomas Miles.
Noah Smith.
James Sherman.
Dr. Jonas C. Baldwin.
Elijah Phillips.
Bradley & Rice.
Turner Fenner.
Pratt .V Smith.
Jedediah Sanger.
Josiah Walker.
Peter Van Camp.
Skeels & Paddock.
John Algur.
General Fellows.
Smith Bros.
Buckley & Craft.
Clark & Metcalf.
Seth Dean.
Thomas Morris.
P. B. Wisner.
Gamaliel Wilder.
E. & J. Boughton.
Ebenezer Curtis.
Richard Bull.
Johannes Snyder.
Robert Milliken.
Capt. Thomas Machin.
Samuel Hazard.

Carpenter.

Daniel Burt.
Isaac Finch.
William White. .
Eldridge Farwell.
Henry Drake.
Auger & Boyden.
Holland Land Co.
Joseph Ellicott.
Lilly Bros.
Joseph Murphy.
Reuben Snyder.
George Scriba.
Schenck <fc Wilson.

Constantia

Grairby

» The first death in the town occurred by an accident in a sawmill in 1801. whereby Alex Graves
was killed.
b A MS. account of Indian mythology written by Mr. Dean is in the State Library, Albany, N. Y.

APPENDIX.

55

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New York — Continued.

County.

Oswego.

Ostego.

Putnam

Queens

Rensselaer

Richmond...
Rockland ...
St. Lawrence

Town.

Hannibal

Mexico

New Haven

Orwell

Palermo

Parish

Redfield

Richland

Sandy Creek ...

Schroeppel

Volney

Williamstown..

Maryland

Middlefield ....

Milford

Roseboom

Springfield

West ford

Worcester

Carmel

Kent

Phillipstown...
Putnam Valley

Southeast

Jamaica

Oyster Bay

Berlin

Grafton

Sandlake

Stephentown . .

Troy City

Castleton ..

Ramapo

Brasher

Canton

Colton

DeKalb

Edwards

Fine

Fowler

Gouverneur

Hermon

Hopkinton

Lawrence

Lisbon

Louisville

Macomb

John Hoar.

William Skinner.

H. W. Schroeppel.

Goodell.

Isaac Alden.

Jotham Houghton.

Alexander McCollum.

Matthew Cully.

Abram Roseboom.

Garret Staats.

Artemas Howe.

Silas Crippen.

Kellogg.

Elisha Cole.

Col. Beverly Robinson.

Isaac Post.

Col. Jonathan Crane.

Joseph Carpenter. 1

Henry Townsend. <>

Amos Sweet.

Josiah Litchfield.

Solomon Taylor.

Younglove.

Jan Barentson Wemp.

John Palmer.

John Suffern.

G. B.R.Gove.

Stillman Foote.

Horace Garfield.

Charles Boreland.

Job Winslow.

James C. Haile.

James Haile.

Lewis K. Morris.

Miltoti Johnson.

[saac R. Hopkins.

Epbraim Martin.

I>. w. Church.

Asa Day.

Timothy Pope.

"Joseph Carpenter and Caleb Carman entered into an agreement with the town, whereby they
were permitted to use timber from the common lands, "except clapboard and rayle trees under 18
Inches," and were tosaw for the town "twelve pens in, the hundred cheaper than any other persons
of any other town"; and for citizens of the town " that bringeth the timber, one-halfe of the sawn
stuff for their laboure, provided that it is only for their owne use."

*> For building this mill the town granted to Townsend and bis heirs Ibreverthe right to cut and
use timber from any part of the town he should choose: also the right to sell such timber either in
the town or out of it.

First
settle-
ment.

1802
1798
1798
1806
1806
1804
1798
1801
1804
1800
1793
1801
1793
1775
1770
1800
1762
1790
1789
1739
1754
1730
1740
1730
1656
1653
1765
1786
1766
1765
1659
1640
1740
1814
1800
1824
1803
1812
1823
1807
1806
1812
1803

ISO?

1800
1800
1817

First
saw-
mill.

1811

1805
1810
1812
1807
1801
1806
1805
1819
1796
1803
1795
1775
1792
1806
1775
1796
1791
1750
1783
1762
1785
1740
1675
1673
1780
1799
1791
1800
1663
1669
1795
1815
1802
1825
1809
1824
1828

1808
1809
1818
ls.U
1809
1804
L805
1818

Built bv—

Silas Crandell.
George Scriba.
Ira Foot.
Joseph Watson.
Phineas Chapin.
Way & Allen.

56 HISTOEY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The beginnings of the lumber industry in (he State of Nt w York— Continued.

County.

St. Lawrence .

Saratoga.

Schenectady b .
Schoharie

Schuyler

Seneca.

Steuben

Town.

First First
settle- saw-
ment. mill.

Built by-

Madrid 1801

Massena 1~92

Norfolk 1809

Ogdensburg * 1749

Oswegatchie 1796

1810
1807
1824
1803
1807
1805
1802
1774
1784
1783
1690
1775
1775
1774

Pariah vi lie

Pierrepont

Pitcairn

Potsdam

Rossie

Russell

Stockholm

Charlton

Greenfield I now Greenfield Center)

Hadley

Halfmoon

N< irthumberland

Providence

Wilton

1803

Seth Roberts.

1792

Amable Foucher.

1810

Timothy \V. Osborn.

1751

Father Picquet.

1797

Nathan Ford.

1810

Barnes Brothers.

1819

Cox & Dimmick.

1828

P. Jenny.

1803

Benjamin Raymond

1810

D. W. Church.

1805

Joel Clark.

1804

Samuel Reynolds.

1783

John Rogers.

1789

Gersbem Morehouse

1791

Delane & Hazard.

i7r,_'

1777

Munroe.

1786

■ Corey.

1784

John Laing.

Broome

Cobleskill

Jefferson

Richmondville

Seward

Sharon

Summit

Wright

Catharine

Cayuta

Dix

Hector

Orange

Reading

Tyrone

Fayette

Seneca Falls ...

Tyre

Addison

Avoca

Bath

Bradford

Cameron

Campbell

1791

1750

1794

1770

1754

1771

1794

1771

1788

1798

1798

1790

1802

1790

1799

1789

1787

1794

1791

1800

1793

1793

1800

1800

1794

1774
17%

1773
1784
1798

1783
1791
1816
1828

1795

1801
1797
1795
1807
1793
1809
1793
1795
1808
1807

Griswold & Wells.
Christian Brown.
Stephen Judd.
Company of settlers.
William Hynds.
John Hutt.

Van Buren.

Zimmer >fc Becker.
Phineas Bowers.
Jesse D. White.
Col. Green Bennett.
Reuben Smith.
Wm. Conlogue.
Eliadia Parker.

Samuel Bear.

Wilhelmus Mynderse.

Nicholas Traver.

George Goodhue.

Henry Kennedy.

Chas. Williamson.

Frederick Bartles.

Richard Hadley.

Campbell A: Stei bens.

»In an official report made to the Canadian Parliament in 1851, entitled " Titles and locuments
relating to the seignorial tenure," there is a copy of thegrant made to Abbe Picquet giving permission
to build a sawmill. This concession, signed by Francois Bigot, the intendant at Quebec, states "that
for the usefulness of the said mill it is necessary that there should be attached thereto a tract of
land on which to receive the saw logs as well as the boards and other lumber," and grants for this
purpose "land of one arpent and a half in front by the same depth." This land now forms part of
the city of Ogdensburg.

*> The colonial patent of 1684, embracing lands in this county and the present site of the city of
Schenectady, refers to sawmills which had already been built within the territory granted; but
nothing appears now in the town and county records to show when or by whom they were erected.

APPENDIX.

57

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New York— Continued.

County.

Town.

Steuben Caton

Cohocton

Corning

Dansville

Erwin

Fremont

Hartsville

Hornby

Hornellsville

Howard

Jasper

Lindley

Pultney

Rathbone

Thurston

Tuscarora

Urbana

Wayland

West Union

Wheeler

Woodhull

Suffolk Huntington

Riverhead

Smithtown

Southold

Sullivan ° Bethel

Callicoon

Fallsburgh

Forestburgh

Fremont

Highland

Liberty ■'

Mamakating

Thompson

Tusten

Tioga Barton

Berkshire

Candor

Newark Valley

Nichols

Owego

Richford

Spencer

Tioga

■Rogers was granted permission t<> build a sawmill at Cold spring on condition that he furnish
lumber at a certain price "and deliver up the stream when the town wants it for a gristmill."

b In 1659 John Tucker "propounded for liberty to sett up a sawmill neere the head of the river, and
liberty to cut all sorts of timber, but noe more of oake than fell in the common track of getting pine
and cedar which were the chief Inducements of getting a mill there to saw."

•Charles Webb, who made a survey of the Minnisink patent in 1762, makes mention in his field
notes of Reeves's sawmill.

■•This mill, which stood on the outlet of Brodhead Pond, was built wholly of logs and hewed tim-
ber. The race was Constructed from large hemlock trees " with much labor and ingenuity."

•Steam mill. There may have been a water mill in the town before this was built; but if so there
is nothing in the town records to Indicate it.

25193— No. 34— 02 5

First
settle-
ment.

First
saw-
mill.

Built by—

1819

1822

Abner Gilbert.

1796

1808

Jonas Cleland.

1788

1793

Ichabod Patterson.

1804

1816

Robert Fuller.

1787

1820

Samuel Erwin.

1812

1816

Daniel Upson.

1809

1827

Daniel P. Carpenter.

1814

1824

Levi Nash.

1792

1795

George Hornell.

1806

1810

Henry Kennedy.

1807

1811

Nicholas Prutsman.

1790

1793

Eleazer Lindley.

1802

1810

Melchior Wagener.

1794

1812

Isaac Tracy.

1813

1814

Paris Wheelock.

1801

1806

William Wombaugh.

1793

1795

John Shether.

1806

1815

Benjamin Perkins.

1822

1849

John Wiley.

1799

1802

Silas Wheeler.

1805

1806

Caleb Smith.

1653

1688

Jonathan Rogers. 1

1690

1659

John Tucker. b

1650

1789

George Phillips.

1640

1659

John Tucker.

1798

1805

John K. Beeman.

1814

Jacob Quick.

1788

1795

William A. Thompson.

1783

1783

Capt. A. Cuddeback.

1780

1792

Aaron Pierce.

1825

N. Patterson.

1790

1799

Capt. Chas. Brodhead.

1728

1730

Manuel Gonsaulus.

1749

1795

William A. Thompson.

1763

1760

John Moore.

1787

1803

George W. Buttson.

1791

1810

Bull & Brown.

1785

1829

Orange F. Booth.

1791

•1830

Patterson & Day.

1787

•1833

(leorge Kirby.

1785

1826

Willard Foster.

1809

1818

Caleb Arnold.

1794

1800

Edmund Hobart.

1 789

1792

Maj. Wm. Ransom.

58 HISTORY OF LUMBER INDUSTRY IN NEW YORK.

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of New York — Continued.

County.

Ulster

Warren .

Washington

Wayne

Town.

Tompkins Caroline

Danby ..

Dryden

Enfield

Groton

Ithaca

Newfield

Ulysses

Denning

Gardiner

Hardenburgh

Kingston

Marlborough (now Marlboro)

Olive

Plattekill

Rochester

Saugerties

Shandaken

Shawangunk

Woodstock

Bolton

Chester

Johnsburg

Queensbury

Stony Creek

Thurman

Warrensburgh

Cambridge

Dresden

Easton

Fort Ann

Fort Edward

Granville

Greenwich

Hebron

Kingsbury

Putnam

White Creek

Whitehall

Arcadia

Butler

Galen

Huron

Lyons

Ontario

Palmyra

Rose

Savannah &

Sodus

Williamson

Wolcott

First
settle-
ment.

1795
1795
1797
1804
1798
1789
1801
1791
1821
1724
1800
1650
1772
1740
1780
1688
1710
1800
1680
1770
1792
1789
1784
1762
1795
1799
1784
1762
1784
1762
1781
1764
1772
1766
1770
1764
1784
1765
1761
1791
1803
1800
1796
1789
1806
1790
1805
1808
1795
1803
1807

First
saw-
mill.

1800
1797
1800
1812
1811
1813
1809
1796
1827
1794
1860
1847
1780
1765
1800
1703
1800
1860

1820
1813
1790
1790
1764
1825
1815
1794

1815
1768

1788

1787
1773

1768
1802
1790
1766
1801
1819
1810
1809
1880
1811
1795
1811
1824
1800
1806
1813

Built by-

Gen. John Cantine.
Dumond <fc Yaple.
Ruloff Whiting.
Benjamin Ferris.
Jonas Williams.
Phineas Bennett.
Eliakim Dean.
David Atwater.
Dewitt & Reynolds.
James Jenkins.
Hiram Seager.
Peter J. Du Bois.
James Hallock.
Lemuel Winchell.
Andrew Garrison.

Hendrick Sehoonmaker.-
D. C. Dutcher.

Harris.

Robert Livingston.
William H.Oglesva.
Jabez Mead.
John Thurman.
Moses Clements.
James McDonald.
Caleb Reynolds.
Jonathan Vowers.
Philip Van Ness.
Amos Collins.
Nathan Tefft.
Jacob Van Wormer.
William Duer.
Nathaniel Spring.
Daniel Rose.
William Lytle.
Albert Baker.
Robert Cummings.
Hercules Rice.
Col. Philip Skene.
Joseph Caldwell.
Jacob S. Viele.
Thomas Beadle.
Elihu Spencer.
John Perrine.
Freeman Hopkins.
Joel Foster.
Elijah Howe.
Royal Torrey.
Captain Williamson.
Jeremiah Selby.
Elisha Plank.

»The stream Crusol Creek, upon which the first sawmill was built, diminished as the forests about
its sources disappeared, so that in about twenty years the mill lost its power. There is now no water-
power afforded by any stream in the town.

APPENDIX.

59

The beginnings of the lumber industry in the State of Next- York— Continued.

County.

Westchester
Wyoming ..

Yates.

Town.

Scarsdale

Arcade

Bennington...

Castile

Covington

Eagle

Gainesville ...
Genesee Falls .
Middlebury ...
Orangeville ...

Pike

Sheldon

Wether&field .
Barrington...

Benton

Italy

Jerusalem

Middlesex ...

Potter

Starkey

First
settle-
ment.

First
saw-
mill.

Built by-

1701

1668

William Saxton.

1808

1811

Maj. Moses Smith.

1802

1808

Chauncey Loomis.

1808

1811

Robert Whalley.

1807

1812

Sprague & Spaulding.

1808

1811

Amos Huntley.

1805

1809

Wheelock Wood.

1804

1815

Mumfoid, Smith & McKay.

1802

1809

A. Worden.

1805

1810

Robert Hopkins.

1806

1809

Eli Griffith.

1804

1806

William Vary.

1810

1812

Calvin Clifford.

1800

1806

William Cummins.

1789

1790

Dr. Caleb Benton.

1793

1795

Asahel Stone, jr.

1789

1795

Daniel Brown.

1789

John Walford, jr.

1788

1792

Arnold Potter.

1800

1807

Timothy Hurd.

o

rJlA

LIST OF BULLETINS HERETOFORE PUBLISHED BY THE DIVISION (NOW BUREAU)

OF FORESTRY.

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V

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY— BULLETIN No. 35.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE
UNITED STATES.

BY

ALFRED JAMES McCLATOHIE, M. A,,

A'jriculturisi and Horticuliurist of the Arizona Experiment Station,

Phot n\x, 'Arizona.

WASHINGTON :

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1902. •

BUREAU OF FORESTRY.

Forester — Gifford Pinchot.

Assistant Forester — Overton W. Price.

Assistant Forester — George B. Sudworth.

Chief Clerk — Otto J. J. Luebkert.

Superintendent of Tree Planting — William L. Hall.

BiA 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Frontispiece.

Interior of.Eucalypt Grove.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BUREAU OF FORESTRY— BULLETIN No. 35.

GIFFORD PINCHOT, Forester.

EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE
UNITED STATES.

BY

ALFRED JAMES MoOLATOHIE, M. A.,
Agricultural and Horticulturist of the Arizona Experiment Station,

Phoenix, Arizona.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

L90 2.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Forestry,
Washington, D. &, June 4, 1902.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and to recommend for
publication as Bulletin No. 35 of the Bureau of Forestry, a report
entitled "Eucalypts Cultivated in the United States," by Prof. A. J.
McClatchie, agriculturist and horticulturist of the Arizona Experi-
ment Station, Phoenix, Ariz. Professor McClatchie has had excellent
opportunities for studying the Australian Eucalypts, which are now
extensively grown in the Southwest for ornament, for wind-breaks,
and for their useful timber. The phenomenally rapid growth of the
Eucalypts, and the special adaptation of many species to dry climates,
render these trees of peculiar economic importance to the Southwest.
The descriptions and illustrations of species, with the information
upon their requirements of soil and climate, and upon the character
and uses of their wood, together form a practical guide for the tree
planter.

Very respectfully, Gifford Pinchot,

Forester.

Hon. James Wilson,

Secretary of Agriculture.

INTRODUCTION.

The Eucalypts are now grown in America, especiall} T in the South-
western United States, more extensively than any other exotic forest
tree. During- the past forty years they have been planted here and in
other parts of the world for ornament, for sanitary improvement, for
shade, for wind-breaks, for fuel, for oil, and for timber; and incident-
all} r they have been useful in many other ways. In fact, they have
probably served more aesthetic and utilitarian purposes than any other
forest trees that have been planted on this continent.

These trees have been studied and extolled alike by botanists, gar-
deners, and foresters. They are worthy of all the attention that has
been given them and deserve to be still better known. The late Baron
Ferdinand von Mueller, Government botanist of Victoria, Australia,
the most renowned student of the great Australian genus Eucalyptus,
prophesied in his scholarly Eucalyptographia that "The Eucalypts
are destined to play a prominent part for all times to come in the
silvan culture of vast tracts of the globe; and for hard-wood supplies,
for sanitary measures, and for beneficent climatic changes all countries
within the warmer zones will with appreciative extensiveness have to
rely on our Eucalypts during an as yet uncountable period." All who
have lived where Eucalypts grow can realize fully the force of the
prophecy and the great value of the genus to mankind, both present
and prospective.

In the following pages the Eucalypts are viewed mainly from the
standpoint of their usefulness, onl} r incidentally being treated as orna-
mentals. No attempt is made to present an exhaustive botanical trea-
tise of the Eucalypts. The botanical features introduced are intended
to be subservient to the interests and purposes of the forester.

Only the large arboreal species are discussed — that is, species attain-
ing a height of over 40 to 50 feet and a diameter of over 1 foot. Many
of the species consisting of smaller trees are very interesting to the
botanist and gardener, but they are of comparatively little interest to
I he forester.

This publication is not a general treatise on the genus Eucalyptus.

3

4 INTRODUCTION.

but has to do more especially with the genus as it behaves in North
America. Only those species that have fruited and by this means
have been identified are treated. This treatise is based mainly upon
ten years' observation and study of the genus in California and Ari-
zona and three years of experimental work in the latter region.
Besides the data obtained as a result of this personal work, very
much of value concerning the genus has been learned through cor-
respondence with students and growers of Eucalypts in the various
regions where thev stow naturally or have been introduced. In this
connection I wish to acknowledge especial indebtedness to the follow-
ing persons for valuable assistance rendered: Hon. Abbot Kinney.
Los Angeles; Hon. Ellwood Cooper, Santa Barbara; Mr. J. H. Maiden,
F. L. S., government botanist, Sydney, Australia; Mr. F. Manson
Bailey, F. L. S., colonial botanist, Brisbane, Australia: Prof. L.
Trabut, Alger-Mustapha, Algiers; E. R. Holmes, Paris; Nathan W.
Blanchard, Santa Paula, Cal. ; and Col. G. H. Norton and A. K.
Sanders. Eustis, Fla.

The purpose of this bulletin is to give information concerning the
characteristics of the Eucalypts, their climatic requirements, and their
uses; to give directions and suggestions as to their propagation and
culture; and to furnish a means of identifying seedlings and mature
trees, so that as the Eucalypts growing throughout the Southwest
become identified, such trees may become sources of information con-
cerning the species they represent, and sources of seed for propaga-
tion. This Australian group of trees now serves very many useful
purposes in the Southwest, and gives promise of great future useful-
ness in the semiarid portions of our continent. It is believed that
when the merits of these trees are fully understood, and information
concerning their climatic requirements and their propagation is readily
available, they will be planted more extensively and with increasing
intelligence and discrimination. The covering of the now untillable.
treeless portions of the semitropic section of America with such trees
as Eucalypts, which will yield fuel, timber, and other useful products,
and also furnish protection from the sun, from winds, and from floods,
or otherwise ameliorate existing climatic conditions, is certainly an
achievement greatly to be desired.

The illustrations are from photographs made \>y the writer during
the past six years. Photographs of most of the seedlings in pots were
made at a nursery in South Pasadena, Cal., the proprietors of which
were extensive American growers of Eucalypts. The remainder were
taken at the experiment station farm near Phoenix, Ariz. Seedlings 4
to 8 months old. as nearly typical of the respective species as possible,
were selected for subjects. It is believed that these illustrations will
prove useful to growers and purchasers in identifying seedlings of these

INTRODUCTION. 5

trees. The photographs of the branches bearing leaves, buds, flowers,
and seed cases were taken in each instance from a specimen fastened to
the trunk of the tre'e upon which it had grown, b} r this means showing
fairly well the nature of the bark of the tree. It is thus attempted
in each of these latter photographs to illustrate the principal features
upon which the species are based, and it is hoped that they will be
found helpful in identifying trees the names of which are unknown
or doubtful.

CONTENTS

PART I.

Page.

The native home of the Eucalypts - 13

The Eucalypts as exotics

' Introduction over the globe I" 4

In southern Europe *°

In Africa * '

In southern Asia

In South America -

In North America *°

Writers upon Eucalypts 20

Foreign -. 20

American 22

PART II.

Characteristics of the genus Eucalyptus 25

General characteristics - 2o

The trunk 26

The foliage 27

The bloom 27

The seeds 28

Relation of the Eucalypts to climate 29

General climatic requirements - 29

Climatic areas in North America 29

Uses of Eucalypts D1

As a forest cover -

As wind-breaks

As shade trees

As a source of timber

Asa source of fuel

As a source of oil - -

Asa source of honey 41

As improvers of climate 4 -

Propagation and care of Eucalypts

Difficulties in growing seedlings

Planting the seed

Transferring to fresh soil ™

Setting in the field

Subsequent care ^'

i

8 CONTENTS.

PART III. _

Page.

Principal species of Eucalypts grown in America, discussed as to characteristics,

climatic adaptations, and uses -±9

Eucalyptus amygdalina 51

Eucalyptus botryoides 53

Eucalyptus calophylla 53

Eucalyptus citriodora 54

Eucalyptus coriacea 55

Eucalyptus cornuta 56

Eucalyptus coi ynibosa ot)

Eucalyptus corynocalyx »'

Eucalyptus crebra 59

Eucalyptus diversicolor 59

Eucalyptus eugenioides : 60

Eucalyptus globulus 61

Eucalyptus gomphocephala 63

Eucalyptus goniocalyx 63

Eucalyptus gunnii 64

Eucalyptus hsemastoma 64

Eucalyptus hemiphloia 65

Eucalyptus leucox yl< >n 66

Eucalyptus longifolia 66

Eucalyptus niacrorl i yncl ia h '

Eucalyptus marginata - 68

Eucalyptus melli< >dora ,)S

Eucalyptus microtheca 69

Eucalyptus ol diqua ■

Eucalyptus occidentalis ™

Eucalyptus paniculata ' 1

Eucalyptus pilularis '*

Eucalyptus piperita ''-

Eucalyptus polyanthema ' ••

Eucalyptus populifolia 73

Eucalyptus punctata '?

Eucalyptus resinifera • ^

Eucalyptus robusta '5

Eucalyptus rostrata - ' b

Eucalyptus rudis « '°

Eucalyptus saligna ™

Eucalyptus siderophloia '"

Eucalyptus sideroxylon °0

Eucalyptus stuartiana

Eucalyptus tereticornis 81

Eucalyptus viminalis 8L

Grouping of species according to characteristics, climatic adaptation, and uses. . 84

PART IV.

Identification of Eucalypts

Systematic position of the Eucalypti - 90

Botanical description of genus 90

Determination of species

Artificial keys to species ®~

Botanical description of species

Bibliography of the genus Eucalyptus

Index 103

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page.
Interior of Eucalyp grove Frontispiece.

USES OF EUCALYPTS.

Plate I. A. Eucalypts as forest cover for parks, East Lake Park, Los Angeles,

Cal 16

B. Eucalypts as wind-breaks. Eucalyptus globulus protecting an

orange orchard near Los Angeles, Cal 16

II. Eucalypts as avenue shade trees near Santa Monica, Cal.:

A. Eucalyptus cornuta 16

B. Eucalyptus corynocalyx 16 ,

III. Public road near Alhambra, Cal - - 16

IV. The Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) as a timber tree:

A. View in a grove twenty years old near Los Angeles, Cal 16

B. Cabin near Los Angeles. (Eucalyptus viminalis in fore-

ground ) 16

V. Eucalypts as a source of fuel:

A. Wood cut from a Blue Gum grove near Los Angeles, Cal 20

B. Wood cut from Red Gum (Eucalyptus rostrata) grove upon

ranch of Ellwood Cooper, near Santa Barbara. (Young

growth from stumps in background) 20

VI. A. Logs ready to be cut by steam sawing machine, visible in back-
ground 20

B. Four-foot wood, recently cut from grove of Blue Gum ( Eucalyptus

globulus ) 20

VII. Blue Gums (Eucalyptus globulus) growing from stumps of trees cut
for fuel:

A. One year's growth 20

B. Three years' growth 20

VIII. Eucalypts growing spontaneously under parent trees:

A. Eucalyptus rostrata at Cooper ranch, Santa Barbara, Cal ... 20

B. Eucalyptus rudis at Minnewawa ranch, Fresno, Cal 20

IX. Eucalypt seedlings in propagation boxes:

A. Ready to transfer to fresh soil 24

B. Ready to set in field - 24

GBOWING TREES.

X. Eucalyptus amygdalina, East Lake Park, Los Angeles, Cal 24

X I . Eucalyptus 1 >otryoides. Trees three years < >ld 24

XII. Eucalyptus 1 >< itryoides. Tree fifteen years old 24

X I II. Eucalyptus calophylla, East Lake Park, Los Angeles, Cal 28

XIV. Eucalyptus citriodora, tall form. Tree fifteen years old, Cooper

ranch, near Santa Barbara, Cal 28

it

10

ILLUSTRATIONS.

rage.
Plate XV. Eucalyptus citriodora, spreading form. Trees twenty years old,

Cooper ranch, near Santa Barbara, Cal 28

XVI. Eucalyptus corymbosa, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal. 28

XVII. Eucalyptus corynocalyx, showing trunks suitable for fence posts. . 32

XVIII. Eucalyptus crebra, Court-House Grounds, Fresno, Cal 32

XIX. Eucalyptus diversicolor, near South Pasadena, Cal 32

XX. Eucalyptus eugenioides, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal . 32

XXI. Eucalyptus globulus, Santa Barbara, Cal 36

XXII. Eucalyptus globulus on ranch of Ellwood Cooper, Santa Barbara,

Cal* 36

XXIII. Eucalyptus globulus. Timber cut from trees in the background

being used to build fence 36

XXIV. Eucalyptus gomphocephala. Grove 24 years old on the Cooper

ranch 36

XXV. Eucalypts on ranch of Ellwood Cooper, Santa Barbara, Cal. :

A. Eucalyptus goniocalyx. Trees 2-4 years old 40

B. Eucalyptus tereticornis. Trees 22 years old 40

XXVI. Eucalyptus hemiphloia. Tree 4 years old, Experiment Station

Farm, Phoenix, Ariz 40

XXVII. Eucalyptus hemiphloia. Trees 24 years old, Cooper ranch, Santa

Barbara, Cal 40

XXVIII. Eucalyptus leucoxylon. State Forestry Station, Santa Monica,

Cal ". 44

XXIX. Eucalyptus leucoxylon. Tree 10 years old, Capitol grounds,

Phoenix, Ariz 44

XXX. Eucalyptus longifolia, Pasadena, Cal 44

XXXI. Eucalyptus melliodora, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal. 44

XXXII. Eucalyptus microtheca, Montecito, Cal 48

XXXIII. Eucalyptus occidentalis, near Santa Monica, Cal 48

XXXIV. Eucalyptus paniculata, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal. 48
XXXV. Eucalyptus pilularis, near Santa Monica, Cal 48

XXXVI. Eucalyptus polyanthema, on grounds of George C. Roeding,

Fresno, Cal . . 52

XXXVII. Eucalyptus robusta, near South Pasadena, Cal 52

XXXVIII. Eucalyptus rostrata. Trees 8 years old, East Lake Park, Los

Angeles, Cal 52

XXXIX. Eucalyptus rostrata. Trees 24 years old, near Ocean Bluff, Santa

Barbara, Cal 52

XL. Eucalyptus rostrata ( Red gum ), near Glendale, Ariz 56

XLI. Eucalyptus rostrata (Red gum), Phoenix, Ariz 56

XLII. Eucalyptus rudis. on grounds of Minnewawa ranch, Fresno, Cal. . 56

XLIII. Eucalyptus rudis, on Minnewawa ranch, Fresno, Cal 56

XLIV. Eucalyptus siderophloia. Trees 8 years old, East Lake Park, Los

Angeles, Cal 60

XLV. Eucalyptus sideroxylon, Montecito, Cal 60

XL VI. Eucalyptus viminalis. Tree 24 years old, Pasadena, Cal.; diam-
eter of trunk over 5 feet 60

XLVII. Eucalyptus viminalis, South Pasadena, Cal. Trees 12 years old. 60

XL VIII. Eucalyptus viminalis, Montecito, Cal. Trees 20 years old 64

XLIX. Eucalyptus viminalis, Montecito, Cal. Trees 20 years old grow- 64

ing among native shrubs and trees 64

ILLUSTKATIONS. 1 1

LEAF, FLOWER, SEED-CASE, BARK.

Page.

Plate L. Eucalyptus amygdalina 64

LI. Eucal yptus botryoid.es 64

LII. Eucalyptus calophylla 64

LIII. Eucalyptus citriodora ^4

LIV. Eucalyptus cornuta 64

LV. Eucalyptus corymbosa 68

LVI. Eucalyptus corynocalyx 68

LVI1. Eucalyptus crebra 68

LVIII. Eucalyptus diversicolor 68

LIX. Eucalyptus eugenioides 68

LX. Eucalyptus globulus 68

LXI. Eucalyptus goraphocephala 68

LXII. Eucalyptus goniocalyx 68

LXIII. Eucalyptus gunnii 72

LXIV. Eucalyptus bemiphloia 72

LXV. Eucalyptus leucoxylon 72

LXVI. Eucalyptus macrorhyncha . .' 72

LX VII. Eucalyptus melliodora 72

i&

9

LXVIII. Eucalyptus microtbeca

LXIX. Eucalyptus obliqua 72

LXX. Eucalyptus occidentals 72

LXXI. Eucalyptus polyanthema 76

LXXII. Eucalyptus resinifera 76

LXXIII. Eucalyptus robusta 76

LXXIV. Eucalyptus rostrata 76

LXXY. Eucalyptus rudis (tree 12 years old) 80

LXXVI. Eucalyptus rudis (tree 6 years old) 80

LX X VII. Eucalyptus siderophloia 80

LX XVIII. Eucalyptus sideroxylon 80

LXXIX. Eucalyptus tereticornis 80

LXXX . Eucalyptus viminalis 80

SEEDLINGS.

LXXXI. A. Eucalyptus calophylla 80

B. Eucalyptus corymbosa 80

C. Eucalyptus corynocalyx 80

D. Eucalyptus citriodora 80

LXXXII. A. Eucalyptus coriacea 80

B. Eucalyptus eugenioides 80

C. Eucalyptus occidentalis 80

D. Eucalyptus cornuta 80

LXXXIII. A. Eucalyptus siderophloia 84

B. Eucalyptus diversicolor 84

C. Eucalyptus globulus 84

D. Eucalyptus gomphocephala - 84

LXXXIV. A. Eucalyptus rudis s4

B. Eucalyptus goniocalyx 84

C. Eucalyptus stuartiana <s_ *

D. Eucalyptus gunnii 84

LXXXV. A. Eucalyptus paniculate 84

B. Eucalyptus hsemastoma 84

( !. Eucalyptus hemiphloia 84

D. Eucalyptus crebra '. 84

12

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Plate LXXXVI. A. Eucalyptus leucoxylon 84

B. Eucalyptus sideroxylou 84

C. Eucalyptus robusta 84

D. Eucalyptus longifolia 84

LXXX VII. A. Eucalyptus melliodora 90

B. Eucalyptus polyanthema 1 90

C. Eucalyptus obliqua 90

D. Eucalyptus pilularis 90

LXXXVIII. A. Eucalyptus resinifera 90

B. Eucalyptus punctata 90

C. Eucalyptus tereticornis 90

D. Eucalyptus rostrata 90

LXXXIX. Young Eucalypts at Experiment Station Farm, Phoenix,

Ariz.:

A. Eucalyptus rudis (1 year old) 96

B. Eucalyptus p< ilyanthema (2 years old) 96

XC. Eucalyptus fruits 96

XCI. Eucalyptus fruits '. 96

EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

PART I.

THE NATIVE HOME OF THE EUCALYPTS.

The native home of the Eucalypts is Australia and some of the adja-
cent islands, including- Tasmania, New Guinea, Timor, and one of the
Moluccas. All but a very small per cent of the species are found on
the continent of Australia itself. A small number grow both on Tas-
mania and in Australia, one of these being the Blue Gum, Eucalyptus
globulus, the species that has been cultivated most widely throughout
other parts of the world.

The Eucalypts constitute a considerable part of the forests of Aus-
tralia, and are said to give a characteristic appearance to the landscape
of the regions in which they grow. They are known in their native
home as Gum trees, Mahogany trees, Box trees, Stringy harks, and by
quite a number of other names, the first being the most common
appellation. Notwithstanding the general use of the term "Gum
tree," the name is not an entirely appropriate one, as the exudations
from the trees are in most cases not gums, but resins. The name
"Eucalypts," proposed by Baron von Mueller, and used in this publi-
cation, is more suitable and euphonious. The only Australian common
names that have been generally adopted in America are "Blue Gum
tree" for E. globulus, and "Red Gum tree" for K rostrata and several
other species, indiscriminately. In Australia several specie are known
as Blue Gums and several as Red Gums. This confusion of names,
due to the great number of the species, and to the application to the
same species of different common names by the inhabitants of the
various colonies of Australia, makes it impracticable to designate a
Eucalyptus tree by a common name. For distinctness it is necessary
to use the botanical names almost entirely. It will probably he some
time, even in their native home, he fore these trees have well established
popular names for each of the 150 or more species.
- In Australia the different species occupy situations varying from
deserts or dry mountainous region- to low. swampy, and moist moun-
tainous ones. On account of the great <liver>it\ of specie- and their
wide distribution in their native home.it has been possible to select

13

14 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

species suitable to a great variety of semitropic situations; and there
are undoubtedly greater future possibilities along this line. Each
year one or more additional promising species finds its way from Aus-
tralia to our continent, the usefulness of the genus being thus continu-
ally extended to new regions. As Americans become better acquainted
with the Eucalypts in their native home the possibilities for the useful-
ness of these trees upon our continent will be increased.

THE EUCALYPTS AS EXOTICS.
INTRODUCTION OVER THE GLOBE.

From Australia the Eucalypts have been carried to many parts of
the earth having a similar climate. The dissemination began on an
extensive scale about the middle of the past century, largely through
the labors of Baron von Mueller in Australia and of M. Ramel in
Australia and in Europe. To be sure, small plantings had been made
in Europe and in Africa earlier in the century, but we are indebted to
these men for an adequate appreciation of the real merits of the genus.
Prof. J. E. Planchon, one of the students and disseminators of Euca-
lypts in France, says of these men in his paper upon the Eucalyptus
globulus, that their memory should be associated with the name
Eucalyptus " wherever this tree thrives as a source of public wealth
and salubrity;" and then adds:

In the history of the future naturalization of the Eucalyptus, Mueller is the savant
who justly calculated the future of the tree, traced it in its [prospective] itineracy,
and predicted its destiny. Ramel is the enthusiastic amateur who has thrown hody
and mind into the mission of propagating it. Both have faith, hut one is a prophet,
the other an apostle; and, in the noble confraternity of services, public gratitude
will not separate the names that are bound together by friendship.

Others took up the good work in various parts of the world, and,
during the quarter of a century that followed, the genus became
widely distributed. It is said that more trees of this genus have
been planted away from its original habitat than of all other forest
trees combined. As an indication of how extensively they were being
planted a quarter of a century ago, the following statement from a
seed catalogue published in Sidney in 1875 is of interest:

To give our friends some idea of the demand: We have sold nearly half a ton of
seed during the past year. One pound weight should produce many thousand plants.

The present generation is reaping the benefit of the extensive plant-
ing of that period.

The Eucalypts are now grown successfully in southern Europe, in
northern and in southern Africa, in southern Asia, in parts of South
America, and in the Southern part of North America. Thus, a por-

a Revue des Deux Mondes, January, 1875. Translated and published by Depart-
ment of Agriculture, May, 1875.

THE EUCALYPTS AS EXOTrCS. 15

tion of each continent of the globe is receiving the benefit of the
distribution of this useful genus from its native home. In many of
the above regions the Eucalypts are a conspicuous feature of the
country, the aspect of the landscape having in some cases been com-
pletely changed by the planting of these trees. There are undoubtedly
many other parts of the earth yet to be benefited by the introduction
and extensive planting of species adapted to the climatic conditions.
The tests of various species made in Arizona by the writer, during
the past three years, indicate that there are species of Eucalypts
adapted to many regions where they have not been tried. These
experiments indicate also that in localities where it has been supposed
they could not be grown successfully as forest trees suitable varieties
have not been tried. There is need of a careful study of these trees
in their native habitats, in order to determine what species may be
introduced into regions with climate and soil similar to those of the
districts in which the respective species grow naturally.

IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.

According to Baron von Mueller Eucalypts were first planted in
Europe in the botanic garden of Naples, in the early part of the last
century. But their value as forest trees was not recognized any-
where in southern Europe until after the middle of the century, and
in Italy not until 1870. During the past forty years their culture has
increased rapidly. Claude M. Thomas, American consul at Marseilles
in 1891, states, in Consular Reports No. 168, that "the cultivation of
the Eucalyptus is receiving much attention from thoughtful men,
wherever in Europe climate and soil are of a character adapted to its
growth."

The French botanists and gardeners were pioneers in studying
Eucalypts and in distributing them throughout southern Europe.
Their interest seems to have continued unabated for nearly half a
century, more publications on the culture and uses of the Eucalypts
having appeared in the French language in that time than in any
other, and probably more than in all other languages in which such
treatises have been written. The Eucalypts were introduced into
France during or before 1851, and during the succeeding quarter
century were planted extensively. Planchon said in 1875:

Now the entire region from Cannes to Monaco displays to the traveler *
the aspiring branches of the Eucalyptus, with their scythe-shaped leaves trembling
beneath the slightest breeze, and withstanding the repeated and violent winds from
the east.

M. Henri Carreron, in an article in a recent number of the Journal
de Geneve, makes the following statements concerning the present
prevalence of Eucalypts in southeastern France:

A Provencal who has not seen the C6te d'Azur for the lasl forty years would nol

16 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

recognize it, so changed is the aspect of its vegetation. No more there of those
characteristic, stunted, grayish bushes. They have been replaced on at least one-
fourth of the surface of the land by cooling and fragrant fore its of huge Eucalypts,
which tower high above the thousand-year-old Olive and Mastic trees. Australia is
invading the ancient Provence; the antipodean forest is gradually taking the place of
the indigenous species of the Old World.

Felix Sathut states in his Les Eucalyptus, published in 1888, that —

The Eucalyptus * * * is certainly of all the exotic trees thus transplanted the
one which excites the most astonishment by the rapidity of its growth, its gigantic
proportions, and the very great diversity of its appearance and foliage. It is already
so abundant that it is encountered at every step in the public places, in all the
gardens, and it is already being used as a forest sort.

In France, Eucalyptus culture is still contined almost exclusively to
the Mediterranean coast region, no species having- been generally
introduced that will withstand the frosts that occur at most points to
the north of this favored maritime district. From that country cul-
ture has extended into most of the region about the Mediterranean,
including its islands. On the island of Corsica these trees have been
grown with special appreciation of their value, several publications
havinsr been written concerning their culture there.

In Italy, Eucalypts wore grown previous to 18~o simply as botanical
or ornamental specimens. During that year they were first set in
large numbers for the sanitary improvement of a locality. The most
extensive planting made that year was by the Trappist monks at
Tres Fontane in the Campagna Komana. where malaria was very
prevalent. Charles Belmont Davis, American consul at Florence in
1894, writes, in Consular Reports No. 168, that—

A few monks used to go to this place from Rome every morning after the sun had
cleared away the fog, plant as many of the Eucalyptus globulus as they could during
the day, and return to the city in the evening. * * * Over 55,000 Eucalyptus
trees are planted at this place to-day. * * * At present Italy has at least 100,000
Eucalyptus under successful cultivation, 30,000 of which are due to the railway com-
panies and 70,000 to private enterprise.

According to a report made by Herbert W. Bowen, American
consul at Barcelona, in 1894, Eucalypts were introduced into Spain
in 1865. where Eucalyptus globulus became known as the "fever
tree," " because it is believed to purify boggy and aqueous regions
that engender fevers." Mr. Bowen writes:

The French are the most active and intelligent (if we leave our own Californians
out of the question) in propagating the tree. Hardly less sanguine than the French
arc * * * the Spaniards, who hope by cultivating the Eucalyptus to eliminate
from the atmosphere the noxious exhalations of their soil, and to secure an ample
supply of woodland and wood.

In Portugal and in Greece Eucalypts are grown successfully, but
have not yet been planted on so extensive a scale as in other parts of
southern Europe.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate I.

A. EUCALYPTS AS FOREST COVER FOR PARKS, EAST LAKE PARK, LOS ANGELES, CAL.

B. Eucalypts as Wind-breaks. Eucalyptus globulus Protecting an Orange Orchard

near La Angeles, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate II.

A. Eucalyptus cornuta.

B. Eucalyptus cOrynocalyx.

Eucalypts as Avenue Shade Trees near Santa Monica, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate III.

Public Road near Alhambra, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IV.

A. View in a Grove 20 Years Old near Los Angeles, Cal.

B. Cabin near Los Angeles. (Eucalyptus viminalis in Foreground.)

The Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) as a Timber Tree.

THE EUCALYPTS AS EXOTICS. 17

IN AFRICA.

About the same time that the Eucalypts were introduced into France
they were carried into the French colonies in northern Africa. The
Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) is reported to have been introduced
into Algeria in 1854, a little over half a century after the discovery of
the species in Tasmania by La Billardiere. By the year 1875, accord-
ing to Planchon, it had been planted in northern Africa " by hundreds
of thousands, in groves, in avenues, in groups, in isolated stalks, in
every section of three provinces; and the foreigner who does not know
the exotic origin of the Eucalyptus would suppose it to be an indigen-
ous tree." He adds: "No tree has in so short a space of time intro-
duced into the forest vegetation of Algeria so picturesque an element,
or is as useful and as promising for the future."

Prof. Louis Trabut, Government botanist of Algeria, wrote to the
author as follows, under date of October 14, 1900:

Relative to the Eucalyptus, this tree has been planted in Algeria since 1870.
Only E. globulus was planted for several years. Lately they have planted E. rostrata.
These are the only species that have been generally planted. Among amateurs 100
other species may be found. The Eucalyptus has rendered great service to the
country in quickly growing wood for the timbers of sheds and other farm buildings.

Eucalyptus culture has continued to spread, now extending through-
out other parts of the continent, more especially in the English and
Dutch colonies of southern Africa. James Bryce, in his Impressions
of South Africa, published in 1897, says, concerning the planting of
Eucalypts in the latter region:

The want of forests in South Africa is one of the greatest misfortunes of the coun-
try, for it makes timber costly. * * * Unfortunately, most of the South African trees
grow slowly; so where planting has been attempted it is chiefly foreign sorts that are
tried. Among these the first place belongs to the Australian gums, because they
shoot up faster than any others. One finds them now everywhere, mostly in rows
or groups around a house or a hamlet, but sometimes also in regular plantations.
They have become a conspicuous feature in the landscape of the veldt plateau,
especially in those places where there was no wood, or the little that existed has
been destroyed. * * * If this goes on, those Australian immigrants will sensibly
affect the aspect of the country, just as they have affected that of the Riviera in
southeastern France, of the Campagna of Rome, of the rolling tups of the Xilghiri
hills in South India.

IN SOUTHERN ASIA.

It is reported that the Eucalypts were introduced into southern
India as early as 1843. Several thousand acres are now covered with
these trees, principally upon the Nilghiri and Palui hills. In parts
of India a great variety of Eucalypts thrive, while in other sections
only a limited number of species can be grown. Sonic large planta-
tions there are now4»» years old. In the consular report for Sep-
27719— No. 35—02- 2

18 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

tember, 1894, V. L. Polk, then consul-general at Calcutta, remarks
concerning the Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus): "It may be said gen-
erally that the growth of this species is an unqualified success."

IN SOUTH AMERICA.

The Eucalypts have been grown in parts of South America for over
thirty years. Interest in them in the Argentine Republic was aroused
by the careful work of Dr. Ernest Aberg, who conducted cultural
experiments with the genus and in 1871 published a work upon the
importance of these trees for a wood supply. The}' are grown to some
extent in Peru, in Venezuela, and in other parts of the continent.

IN NORTH AMERICA.

The Eucalypts were introduced into North America only a few
years after their introduction into France and Algeria, the merits of
the genus being early recognized by Californians. It is reported that
they were introduced into California in 1856 by Mr. Walker, of San
Francisco, and in that year 14 species were planted. In 1860 Mr.
Stephen Nolan, a pioneer nurseryman of Oakland, being greatly
impressed with the rapid growth of these first trees, and also with their
evident adaptability to the climate, commissioned a sea captain sailing
for Australian ports to secure any Eucalyptus seed he could, at the
same time furnishing money with which to make the purchase. A
large supply of seed of several species, including Eucalyptus luminalis,
was received from this source, and sown in 1861. Mr. Nolan continued
to import seed in quantity for several years, distributing the seedlings
widely through the State.

The country is especially indebted to Hon. Ellwood Cooper for call-
ing attention to the merits of the Eucalypts. For many years he was
very active in bringing the genus to the attention of the citizens of
California. Under date of May 28, 1900, he writes:

There were Blue Gum trees growing in the State during my first visit in 1868. I
saw a few specimens in private gardens from 10 to 20 feet high; was attracted to
their beauty; so that when I located in Santa Barbara, in 1870, I at once conceived
the idea of forest planting.

In 1875 he delivered in Santa Barbara a lecture in which his enthu-
siasm for the genus found expression. This was probably the first
address on the subject in America. His interest in these trees (and.
incidentally, the rapidity of their growth, which is one of the causes
of their rapid introduction) is shown by the following statement made
by him upon that occasion:

At my home I have growing about 50,000 trees. The oldest were transplanted
three years ago. A tree three years and two months from the seed, transplanted two
years and ten months ago, is 9i inches in diameter and 42 feet 6 inches high.

THE EUCALYPTS AS EXOTICS. 19

During the intervening quarter century Mr. Cooper has continued
the extensive planting of Eucalypts. He has set them in canyons
and on steep hillsides, has utilized them for a forest cover, for wind-
breaks, for shade on avenues, for sources of timber and wood, as
well as for ornament, thus furnishing the country an object lesson
of what the tree will do for an appreciative planter. He now has
about 200 acres of his ranch north of Santa Barbara covered with for-
ests of these trees. Here is the best place in America to see a large
variety of Eucalypts grown as forest trees. Several varieties to be
seen only as botanical or ornamental specimens elsewhere can be seen
here growing by the acre. Mr. Cooper's groves have been and will
continue to be valuable sources of information as to the behavior,
when growing in forests, of several species not yet generally olanted
in America.

A great impetus has been given the planting of Eucalypts in the
southwestern United States by the labors of Hon. Abbot Kinney, of
Los Angeles. As chairman of the California Board of Forestry from
1886 to 1888 he rendered a great service to the State in causing the
planting of thousands of Eucalypts within her borders. A large per-
centage of the trees of species other than Eucalyptus globulus, now
growing in the Southwest, are from plants distributed during his
administration. Mr. Kinney has ever since been an enthusiastic stu-
dent and planter of trees of this genus, and has written more upon
Eucalypts than any other American. In southern California espe-
cially, and in Arizona also, the planting of these trees has been extended
very much by his work.

During recent years the planting of Eucalypts has been stimulated by
the labors of Mr. A. Campbell-Johnston, of Garvanza, Cal., an ardent
student and admirer of these trees, who by his writings and his example
has done much to attract attention to the merits of the genus. The
firm with which he is connected at South Pasadena, Cal., is rendering
a service of incalculable value in furnishing for planting authentically
named seedling Eucalypts. Mr. Campbell-Johnston is also conducting
at his ranch the most extensive cultural test of species of Eucalyptus
that has been made in America.

It is through the labors of such men as have been mentioned, and
of many others, that the Eucalypts have become disseminated and
recognized and very generally planted throughout California. The
landscape of many parts of the State has been completely changed
by the growth of these trees. Over much of the State they arc the
principal wind-break, shade, and fuel trees, and the number of useful
purposes they serve is continually increasing. Without the Eucalypts
California would be a very different State, and their value to the Com-
monwealth is be}'ond calculation.

From California the planting of Eucalypts extended into Arizona.

20 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

New Mexico, Texas, and Florida. In most cases the Blue Gum
{Eucalyptus globulus), the species that had been most successfully
grown in California, was the one first planted in these regions. The
Blue Gum is not adapted to these regions and this has led to the belief
that no Eucalypts would thrive there. In southern Arizona, for
example, the Blue Gum does not endure the dry heat of summer, while
in Florida the frosts of winter have been fatal to it. But in some of
these places more resistant species have been introduced and are grow-
ing satisfactorily. A more careful and systematic study of the genus,
accompanied by cultural tests, will undoubtedly result in the discovery
of additional and probably better species for these and other regions.

Eucalypts have been introduced from California into Mexico also,
and their merits are being gradually recognized there.

The introduction of heretofore untried species is continuing in the
Southwest, and the number grown there is thus rapidly increasing.
During the past three or four years especially a great many species
have been added to the list of those grown in America. The forty
species discussed at length in this publication comprise the species
known to the writer that have been introduced long enough to produce
seed, and thus establish their identity. Five years hence a large num-
ber of additional species will have fruited, and a publication covering
the s*mie ground that this one aims to cover would then include nearly
twice the number discussed in these pages. The recently introduced
species are growing mostly at the University of California, at forestry
stations at Santa Monica and Chico, on the ranch of A. Campbell-
Johnston (Garvanza), in Elysian Park (Los Angeles), and upon the
experiment station farm near Pho?nix. Their development is being
closely watched by those interested in their planting, and by whom
the great future possibilities in these recent arrivals from the native
home of the genus is fully realized.

WRITERS UPON EUCALYPTS.
FOREIGN.

Much has been written concerning this very interesting group of
trees. Most of the publications have been in English and in French —
several score in each language. A few have appeared in Italian, a few
in German, and a few in Spanish.

The most comprehensive work on the Eucalypts is Baron von Muel-
ler's Eucalyptographia, a ten-part illustrated monograph, published
b} T the government printer at Melbourne, Australia, and by Trubner
& Co., London, 1879 to 1884. One hundred species are illustrated
and described, with their climatic requirements and their uses quite
fully given. Baron Von Mueller expressed in the final number a hope
that during the years remaining to him supplemental parts might be

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate V.

'&&*

A. Wood Cut from a Blue Gum Grove near Los Angeles, Cal.

B. Wood Cut fhom Red Gum I Eucalyptus rostrataI Grove upon Ranch of Ellwood Cooper near Santa Barbara, Cal.

(Young Growth from Stumts in Background.)

EUCALYPTS AS A SOURCE OF FUEL.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VI.

' . '"J^rk\

A. Logs Ready to be Cut by Steam Sawing Machine. Visible in Background.

jtfSF^tf ms, ,
-■ ...--■

B. Four-foot Wood Recently Cut from Grove of Blue Gum 'Eucalyptus globulus".

The 20-acre tract averaged 80 cords per acre, the growth of ee\ en years, from stumps of trees previously cut
iin' fuel twice. Sprouts are appearing from some of the stumps,

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U, S. bept. of Agriculture.

E>LATE VII.

A. One Year's Growth.

B. Three Years' Growth.

Blue Gums (Eucalyptus globulus) Growing from Stumps of Trees Cut for Fuel.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate VIII.

A. Eucalyptus rostrata at Cooper Ranch, Santa Barbara, Cal.

B. Eucalyptus rudis at Minnewawa Ranch, Fresno, Cal.

Eucalypts Growing Spontaneously under Parent Trees.

WRITEKS UPON EUCALYPTS. 21

issued, discussing- a portion at least of the 20 to 30 species that he then
recognized as remaining untreated in his Eucalyptographia. That he
did not, however, expect to bring the work upon the genus to a close
before his death is shown by the following: " The author can not hope
during the remaining brief period of his lifetime to complete the
present work with some approach to exhaustiveness of the subject."
Though he continued working on the genus during much of the
remaining fourteen years of his life, no additional parts were issued.
The great man had devoted, with remarkable energy and enthusiasm,
nearly half a centuiy to the study of the genus, without exhausting
the subject or completing a work that purported to cover it. Unfor-
tunately the Eucalyptographia is now out of print, and it is prac-
tically impossible to secure a copy by purchase. There arc probably
but live copies of the work in America, with little possibility of the
number ever being increased.

The fullest treatment of the genus Eucalyptus from the botanical
standpoint is to be found in Volume III of the Flora Australiensis,
by Bentham and von Mueller, published in 1866 by L. Reeve & Co.,
London. This volume contains botanical descriptions of all the species
then known, 185 in number. The common colonial names of a large
number of the species are given, and the part of Australia in which
each species was reported as growing is stated.

Rev. William Woolls, of New South Wales, is the author of two
works containing much information concerning the genus: A Con-
tribution to the Flora of Australia; The Genus Eucalyptus, and The
Plants of New South Wales. J. Ednie Brown, in New South Wales;
I. G. Luehmann, in Victoria; A. W. Howitt, inGippsland, and Walter
Gill, in South Australia, have each contributed to the literature of the
subject.

Mr. Joseph H. Maiden, director of the botanical gardens at
Sydney, New South Wales, and Mr. F. Manson Bailey, colonial
botanist, Brisbane, Queensland, are actively engaged in work upon
the genus. Mr. Maiden is in a sense continuing the work of Baron von
Mueller. His papers upon the Eucalypts as timber trees in Australia
and upon the new species that he, in conjunction with Henry Deane,
has detected, are very valuable. Maiden writes that he is at present
engaged upon the manuscript of a B-evisio Critica which he hopes to
publish before long. Such a publication from his pen will lie of incal-
culable value to students of the Eucalypts. and will undoubtedly do
much to remove the confusion that now exists concerning the names
of many species. His descriptions already published, both botanical
and popular, are models of clearness, conciseness, and completeness.

The French have been prolific writers upon the culture and uses of
the Eucalypts. but their articles are usually brief. Most of their pub-
lications treat especially of Eucalyptim' globulus , some, however, are
general, but only a few discuss the various species separately.

22 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

The late Charles Naudin, director of the botanical laboratory at La
Villa Thuret. Antibes, was the author of two works on the Eucalypts,
the first, published in 1883. entitled The Eucalyptus introduced into
the Mediterranean Region:" the second published in 1891. entitled
Description and Use of Eucalyptus introduced in Europe. Besides
a discussion of the general characteristics of Eucalypts. they contain
descriptions of the species grown about the Mediterranean, 56 in num-
ber, of which 13 were established by Naudin himself as a result of his
cultural tests and his observations on the growth of Eucalypts in his
region.

The most extended general treatise on Eucalypts in the French
language is Los Eucalyptus, by Felix Sahut. of Montpelier. It
contains a discussion of this genus, principally with reference to its
geographical distribution, together with a history of its discovery:
and also gives descriptions of its forest, industrial, sanitary, and
medicinal adaptabilities, with suggestions regarding its culture.

Of the many other French writers on the Eucalypts, the following
have treated of their culture in France: Ramel, RaveretAYatel, Plan-
chon. Nardy, Certeux. Joly, and Combes; of their culture in Algeria,
Lambert. Cordier. Bertheraud. and Trottier: in the island of Corsica,
Carlotti.

AMERICAN.

A few publications treating of the Eucalypts have appeared on the
Pacific coast. The first., a compilation by Hon. Ellwood Cooper, was
published in 1876. The work consisted of a popular lecture (previ-
ously mentioned) on "Forest Culture and Australian Gum Trees."
by Mr. Cooper: two lectures of a similar character by Baron von
Mueller: a paper by the latter upon "Australian Vegetation," and
descriptions of species of Eucalypts copied from the writings of Baron
von Mueller and from a seed catalogue.

The most extensive American work on the genus appeared in 1895 —
an illustrated volume of .'Mo pages, from the pen of Hon. Abbot Kin-
ney and the press of B. R. Baumgardt & Co.. Los Angeles. This
important work treats the Eucalypts from the {esthetic, the botanical,
and the utilitarian standpoints. An unfortunate lack of system
detracts from the usefulness of the book: but it is a mine of valuable
information and suggestions. Each species that was known by Mr.
Kinney to be growing in California is discussed. The work also con-
tains directions for planting and caring for Eucalypts: the results of
cultural tests of a large number of species, and the results of the dis-
tillation of the oil from 26 species; several papers by other writers
upon the medicinal and chemical phases of the subject; and many useful
tables and other matter from Baron von Mueller's great work. Most

WRITERS UPON EUCALYPTS. 23

of the botanical portion and many of the illustrations were contributed
by the writer of this work.

Mr. J. Burtt Davy, of the University of California, contributes the
article upon "Eucalyptus" in Volume II of Prof. L. H. Bailey's
Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. The article contains brief
botanical descriptions of 52 species, summarized from Baron von
Mueller's Eucalyptographia, and "verified by reference to herbarium
specimens wherever these were available." Some statements in this
article concerning the propagation of Eucalypts do not agree with
experience here in the Southwest, where the growing of seedlings is
not a simple matter.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate IX.

A. Ready to Transfer to Fresh Soil.

,'i\'i ft ft

: DCrir tKJ

: x

. r
Irk**
* ft'',

< *>
"J"

L2?

# ****>*;

V 5 * ^J

3£*£<I

B. Ready to Set in Field.

Eucalypt Seedlings in Propagation Boxes.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate X.

Eucalyptus amygdalina, East Lake Park, Los Angeles, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XI.

Eucalyptus botryoides. Trees 3 Years Old.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XII

Eucalyptus botryoides. Tree 15 Years Old.

PART II.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENUS EUCALYPTUS.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

The genus 'Eucalyptus includes about 150 species. Most of them
are trees of large size; some of them among the largest in the world.
They range, however, from immense trees towering high on plains
and hillsides down to small shrubs that cover desert or alpine regions.

They grow in a great variety of soils and climates, the various native
environments having thus resulted in the development of species that
are quite different from one another. In their native home they grow
both scattered and in forests.

The Eucalypts are all evergreens, a fact that should be taken into
consideration when planting them.

Many of the species are vigorous growers, a few being especially
noted for the great rapidity of their growth. The Blue Gum {Euca-
lyptus globulus) is one of the fastest growing of the genus. On the
ranch of Hon. Ellwood Cooper, near Santa Barbara, Cal., trees of this
species 25 years old are as large as oaks whose rings show them to be
200 to 300 years old. As to their growth in France, Prof. Charles
Naudin, in his memoir on Eucalyptus, published in 1891, says:

In a score of years they (the Blue Gums) attain at least the volume and the height
of an oak a century old. Some others, though not growing as rapidly, are moreover
remarkable for the short time in which they may be used for carpentry, for joinery,
for carriage making, for agricultural implements, for railroad sleepers, and for tele-
graph poles."

It is this rapidity of growth, enabling them to reach the stature of
trees in a few years, that has been the principal cause of the popularity
of the Eucalypts where they have been introduced.

Most species if pruned, or if cut off at the ground, sprout freely.
sending up shoots that usually make a very vigorous growth. This
makes it possible to cut the trees for find, for timber, or for other
purposes, and in a comparatively short time to again have a forest
containing us much timber as before the trees were cut. A Blue Gum
{Eucalyptus globulus) 8 to L0 years old. if cut to tin ground, will send

25

26 EUCALTPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

up shoots that will reach a height of 75 or 100 feet in from six to eight
years. Several other species make an almost equally rapid growth
after being cut. The cutting may be repeated every few years for an
indefinite period.

Eucalypts are propagated only from seed. To this fact is due their
comparative freedom from injurious insects and from diseases usual
to exotics which have been introduced into America by cuttings or
seedlings. Their dissemination throughout the world having been by
seeds alone, the insect enemies and the parasitic fungi of their native
home have been left behind. In America they have few insect enemies,
and they are remarkably free from disease.

THE TRUNK.

The character of the trunk varies considerably. Of many species
the trunk is erect and straight-grained: of others it is more or less
curved and twisted. In the majority of species the trunk diminishes
in size upward very gradually, being long and cylindrical. It is this
characteristic that makes many of them so admirably adapted for
masts, piles, bridge timbers, and telegraph poles.

The bark of the different species shows great variety. In some it
is very rough, while in others it is quite smooth. In many species its
character changes considerably with age. The bark of all seedlings
is smooth, that of some remaining so permanently, that of others
becoming more or less rough and furrowed as the tree grows older.
Some rough barks are fibrous and stringy on the outside, while others
are hard and brittle. Trees having the former kind of bark are com-
monly known as stringy-barks: those having the latter, as iron-barks.
Intermediate between the above two types is a bark, somewhat fibrous,
but more or less scaly on the outside, like that of the American Ash.
Of several species the bark of the limbs is much smoother than that
of the trunk: and often, in the same species, the surface of the bark
varies considerably, being modified by the soil and climate. The bark
remains permanently on the trunks and limbs of some species, while
from others the outer layer falls away freely in sheets or strips, leav-
ing the fresh surface smooth and lighter in color. The surface of the
bark of different species varies in color from light cream to dark brown.
The matured wood of all species is hard— of some species very
hard. Of many species it is tough and durable, resembling in this
respect the wood of American oaks and hickories. The wood of some
species is heavier than water. The wood varies a good deal in grain,
being straight-grained and easily split in some species, while in others
it is gnarled and splits with great difficulty. For this reason the
various species furnish timber adapted to a great variety of uses.
The color of the wood varies from clear white to a rich brown.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GENUS EUCALYPTUS. 27

THE FOLIAGE.

The Eucalypts present great variety in the appearance of their foli-
age. Of some species it is bluish, of others a light or grayish green,
and of still others a very dark green. Of some the foliage is dense,
but of many species it is open, affording but little shade. The foliage
and young twigs of all species possess a more or less pronounced odor,
due to the presence of oil-dots. To the majority of people the odor
of most species is agreeable — in some cases quite fragrant.

Of many species the leaves of the young seedlings are of a different
shape from those of the adult tree. As a rule, the leaves of the seed-
ling tree are broader, shorter, and shorter-stemmed than those of the
older ones. As the tree grows older, the newly formed leaves are com-
monly successively longer and narrower, until the adult form is reached.
This change usually occurs during the first year or two of the tree's
growth. The leaves of some species are opposite on the stem of the
} T oung seedlings, becoming scattered as the change to the adult leaf-
form occurs. Only a few species have permanently opposite leaves.
These marked characteristics in seedling leaves furnish one means of
identifying species. A grower or purchaser of young Eucalypts, if
he knows what the nature of the leaves should be, can distinguish the
species very early in their development. It is for the purpose of
furnishing assistance on this point that the illustrations of seedlings
are given in this publication. (See Pis. LXXXI to LXXXIX.)

The mature leaves of most species are comparatively long and slen-
der, the prevailing shape being that of a lance, or somewhat curved
like a sickle. They vary considerably as to texture, those of some
species being thin and papery, while those of the majority are more
or less thick and leathery. Instead of spreading horizontally and
beino- darker colored above than below T , as is the case with most fiat-
leafed trees, the leaves of the majority of species present one edge to
the sky, the two surfaces consequently having the same or nearly the
same appearance. Those species with leav.es spreading horizontally
naturally furnish more shade than those whose leaves hang with one
edge skyward.

THE BLOOM.

The Eucalypts bear flowers that are more or less conspicuous. The
flowers of different species differ sufficiently to render very material
help in deciding upon tin- correct name of a tree. The greatest
differences are in the flower buds, which, just before they open, are
much more useful in determining the species to which a tree belongs
than the open flowers. Most species bloom freely and many bloom
very profusely. The trees of most species produce flowers early in
their development, blossoms sometimes appearing on 2 or 3 year old

28 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

trees that attain, when full grown, a height of 100 to 300 feet. This
early blooming greatly facilitates their identification and their propa-
gation from seed. The flowering periods of the different species vary
considerably , extending through the entire year. Some species remain
in blossom a large portion of the year, some bloom during two dis-
tinct periods of the year, while of others the flowering season is quite
limited.

The flowers usually grow in clusters, which botanists call umbels,
rarely singly. The clusters are borne at the leaf axils or at the ends
of branches, usually singly; but in some species several clusters are
found arranged in what botanists call a panicle. The unopened flower
buds are hermetically sealed by a close covering that corresponds to
the outer leaves, or calyx, of most other flowers. It was this close
covering of the flowers that suggested to L'Hertier, the botanist who
discovered and named the genus, the name Eucalyptus, the word
meaning in Greek " well concealed. " As the flower opens, the upper
part separates as a lid and falls away, while the lower half of the
calyx remains permanently and incloses the developing seeds. At the
same time there falls away a less conspicuous under covering that is
thought to correspond to the petals of other flowers. The flowers
when open, therefore, are destitute of any enveloping 'flower leaves.
The stamens constitute the most conspicuous feature of the opened
flowers, being usually very numerous. They differ considerably in
color, the prevailing tint, however, being greenish or yellowish white.
Of some species the stamens are highly colored, thus causing the
flowers to be strikingly beautiful, and consequently highly prized for
ornament.

THE SEEDS.

The persisting portion of the calyx becomes a firm, tough covering
for the seed case, which endures much weathering and usually remains
on the tree for a considerable period. The seed cases of the different
species vary in size from one-eighth of an inch to 1 inch in diameter.
The shapes are various, the prevailing forms being that of a cup, a
goblet, a top, or an egg. As the seed cases mature the upper cover-
ing separates into from three to five tooth-like bodies termed valves,
and the seeds fall out between them. The valves when open either
project from the mouth of the seed case or are included in it. The
shape of the seed case and the position of the valves peculiar to each
species furnish valuable data for determining the name of a Eucalypt.

The seeds are, with a few exceptions, quite small and very numerous,
many, however, usually being infertile. The smallness of the seeds (the
usual length being 0.04 to 0.1 inch) makes their transportation easy
and the rearing of young plants on a large scale practicable. The
number of young plants that the seeds of a single tree would produce
per year is enormous.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XIII

Eucalyptus calophylla, East Lake Park, Los Angeles, Cal.

Bui 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XIV.

Eucalyptus citriodora-Tall Form. Tree 15 Years Old, Cooper Ranch, near Santa

Barbara, Cal.

Bui 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XV.

I

Eucalyptus citriodora— Spreading Form. Trees 20 Years Old, Cooper Ranch, near Santa

Barbara, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XVI.

Eucalyptus corymbosa, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal.

RELATIONS OF THE EUCALYPTS TO CLIMATE. 29

RELATION OF THE EUCALYPTS TO CLIMATE.
GENERAL CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS.

The Eucalypts differ considerably as to the climatic conditions under
which they thrive, but all the larger arboreal forms agree in requiring
a warm climate. Not only do they prefer a climate that is equable,
but other conditions must exist in order that they may be grown
successfully. Prof,, Charles Naudin, in his memoir on the genus,
gives quite concisely the conditions required for the successful growth
of Eucalypts. He says:

Trie first condition of success in the culture of Eucalyptus is a climate appropriate
to their nature; that is to say, for a great majority of the species, warm summers, a
moderate amount of rain, a certain atmospheric dryness, plenty of sunlight, and very
temperate winters.

While all thrive best in regions with warm summers, many species
do not endure the summer heat of certain sections of southwestern
North America. Regions where the midsummer maximum tempera-
tures range from 80° to 105° F. are best suited to the growth of these
trees. Some species thrive in regions where the maximum tempera-
tures range in summer from 100° to 120° F., but the number is lim-
ited. The various species differ very much as to the amount of cold
they will endure. Some will stand minimum temperatures of 10° to
15° F., while other species will under no circumstances endure tem-
peratures much below freezing. The degree of cold that any species
will endure depends not only upon the other conditions of the atmos-
phere at the time, but upon the nature of the weather that has pre-
ceded. Low temperatures following a warm period that has stimu-
lated growth do much more injury than the same degree of cold
following a gradual fall in temperature.

While most Eucalypts are benefited by occasional heavy rainfalls
that saturate the soil thoroughly, frequent rains and a very humid
atmosphere are not conducive to their healthful growth. They have
the power of absorbing great quantities of water by means of their
roots, but the above-ground parts of most species prefer to be in quite
dry atmosphere, at least for a portion of the year. A few species
grow in swampy, humid regions, but the majority of them prefer
drier situations. Plenty of sunlight is quite essential to the healthy
growth of most species, few of them thriving in the shade of other
trees or in regions having much cloudy weather.

CLIMATIC AREAS IN NORTH AMERICA.

With regard to the effect of climate upon the Eucalypts, we may

divide the United States into four sections. In the first and largest
division the winters are ordinarily so cold as to kill the Eucalypts,
and their growth there outdoors is consequently impracticable. This

^

30 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

region comprises all of the United States except a strip varying from
100 to 300 miles in breadth along the southern and the southwestern
border.

In the second division the winters in most years are so mild that
growth is not checked; but during some winters a cold wave passes over
the region that kills the whole, or a large part of the tree that has grown
during the years in which no unusually cold period occurred. In this
section Eucalypts never, or rarely, become dormant; and when a cold
wave comes they are unprepared for it, the result being disastrous.
This region consists of Florida and the adjacent coast region of the
south Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico. In Florida the conditions
seem to be especially trying. Col. G. H. Norton, of Eustis, Fla.,
writes, under date of February 6, 1900:

All Eucalypts do well, but are killed to the ground when a very severe blizzard
comes and the mercury falls much below 20° F. The trouble with the climate is,
we have warm weather nearly all the time in winter, with an occasional cold wave.

Possibly there may be a species as yet untried there that would
withstand the conditions described.

In the third division the minimum temperatures, while commonly
quite low during midwinter, decrease so gradually during the latter
part of autumn that the growth of the previous year has time to
mature. It is thus able to endure a low temperature that would be
fatal in the second division, discussed above, where the weather is
alternately warm and cold. In other words, these evergreens, in
common with the others of the region, both native and exotic, become
dormant, just as native evergreens do in the colder first division. For
this reason many Eucalypts can be grown there that can not be suc-
cessfully grown in the second division, even though the mean tempera-
tures of the winter may be higher in the latter. This region consists
of the interior valleys of part of Texas, of southern New Mexico, of
southern Arizona, and of southern California. In much of this region
the summers are so dry and hot that man}' Eucalypts can not endure
them. Consequently, the species that thrive in this section are those
that both endure a very dry, hot atmosphere and become sufficiently
dormant during the winter to endure the low temperatures that occur.
The species of which this is known to be true are Eucalyptus rostrata,
E. nidi*. E. leucoxylon, E. hemiphloia, E. polyanthema, E. mellio-
dora, E. corynocalyx, K. tereticornis, and L. s<iJuhris.

In the fourth division the climate is so equable that nearly all
species of the genus Eucalyptus will grow in it. In this region the
mercury rarely falls below 25° F. during winter nor rises much
above 105° F. during summer, and the atmosphere is commonly
moderately humid. This division consists of the coast region of central
and southern California. It is the section of the United States in which
Eucalypts are grown most extensively and most successfully.

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 31

Mexico might be similarly divided into four Eucalypt areas. The
territory of these divisions would not necessarily be contiguous, but
would be determined by elevation rather than by latitude or longitude.

USES OF EUCALYPTS.

The Eucalypts probably serve more useful purposes than the trees
of any other genus grown on the globe, except, possibly, the various
palms. Their uses are very diverse. As they grow they serve as a
forest cover to mountains, hills, plains, and swamps, as wind-breaks,
and as shade trees. While growing they are also the source of many
gums and resins, and of honey. When cut, they furnish valuable tim-
ber, excellent fuel, and a very useful oil. Besides all this, many of
them are ornamental, and they have the reputation of improving the
climate of the region in which they grow. Being hardwood trees, they
serve the useful purposes that hardwood trees ordinarily serve, and
besides furnish many useful products similar to those obtained from
a variety of other trees, and from shrubs and herbs. This great
variety of uses is made available, in regions where they have but
recently been introduced, by reason of their very rapid growth, it being-
possible to enjoy many of their uses while the trees are still standing,
and to obtain from them many useful products within a very few
years after planting them.

AS A FOREST COVER.

It is as forest trees that the Eucalypts are most useful; planted as
ornamental or as shade trees they are often disappointing. Planters
who have put them out as forest trees are the ones who have derived
the greatest benefit from them. (PI. I, a.) Hon. Ellwood Cooper,
of Santa Barbara, was one of the first Americans to recognize the
prospective value of Eucalypts as forest trees. He acted upon his
conviction, and has for a score of years been reaping the reward.
Besides enjoying the beauty and shade of his groves, as well as the
beneficial changes they have wrought in the climate of the region, he
has for many years received from them an annual income of no incon-
siderable amount. Those who have planted them singly or in small
groups as ornamental or shade trees have received little or no financial
return, and have in some cases been disappointed in them because not
serving, as they had hoped, the purpose for which they were set.

In many of the semitropic portions of the globe the Eucalypts are
the trees most suitable to plant for forest cover. Much of the treeless
land of semitropic America might be covered with these trees. As
the conditions under which the different Eucalypts grow in Australia
are very diverse, it is evident that, if the species are properly selected.
they will cover nearly all kinds of situation-.

32 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

The species suited to particular localities or conditions may be ascer-
tained by reference to pages that follow. Those that grow in Australia
on the uplands and in other dry situations can be used here to cover
similar regions. In the Southwest there are large areas of hilly coun-
try, of little or no use for other purposes, that might be transformed
into useful forests by covering them with these trees. This covering
of the hills with forests will not only furnish shade, a source of honey,
and a supply of fuel and timber, but will prevent the too rapid run-
off of rain water, which results in the cutting and washing of hillsides
and in other forms of damage below. On this point Mr. Cooper, in a
letter to the writer dated June 18, 1900, says:

South of where I live, about one-eighth of a mile, is a steep hillside. I noticed
during my residence the first years that heavy rains washed down the soil, all the
rain running off. I planted Eucalyptus trees on this hillside, about 4 feet apart.
When these trees had four or five years of growth we had a tremendous rain storm,
14 inches of rain falling in four days. Nearly all this water was held by the trees,
practically none running off. There is always more moisture in the soil near these
trees than some distance off. There is no question as to the great importance of hav-
ing our mountain sides well wooded with trees and bushes to preserve the rain for
the benefit of the valley below.

The Eucalypts can be utilized as a forest cover for mountains as
well as hillsides. Several species grow naturally upon the mountains
of Australia. These will serve as a covering for bare mountain sides
in the Southwest, and the writer believes that they would prove quite
valuable for recovering those that have been denuded of their natural
forests by lire. The rapid growing species, less resistant to frost,
could be planted on the lower parts of mountains, and the somewhat
slower-growing, more hardy ones farther up the mountain sides.
Those adapted to alpine situations may be planted to a height of from
4,000 to 6,000 feet.

Lowlands, too, may be covered with Eucalypts. In Australia several
species grow naturally in swamps or other low situations. These may
be utilized for covering the lowlands in warm regions in other parts
of the world, thus reducing the amount of the stagnant water, and in
other ways rendering such localities more agreeable.

Judging from observations made during the past few years (the most
trying years upon vegetation that have been experienced in the South-
west since it was settled), the writer believes that much of the tree-
less desert region might be forested with Eucalypts. At the close of
the season of 1900, the driest one of which the Weather Bureau has a
record, trees of several species were observed growing without irriga-
tion in southern Arizona, and some of them had not been irrigated
for many years. Trees of the Red Gum (Eucalyptus rostrata), the
Sugar Gum (E. corynocalyx), and of E. tereticomis, growing in a neg-
lected tract under desert conditions. where the ground water was about
100 feet below the surface, endured the above trying summer. This

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XVII.

Eucalyptus corynocalix, Showing Trunks Suitable for Fence Posts.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture.

PLATE XVIII.

Eucalyptus crebra, Court-House Grounds. Fresno, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XIX.

Eucalyptus diversicolor, near South Pasadena, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XX.

Eucalyptus eugenioides, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal.

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 33

indicates that these, and probably other species, might be used as a
forest cover for similar desert regions. In order to get the seedlings
started it would be necessary to water and cultivate them a year or
two, after which they would be supported by the rainfall, especially
in localities where the ground water is near the surface.

AS WIND-BREAKS.

In the Southwest the Eucalypts have been found very useful as
wind-breaks. Their quick growth and varied habit make them
peculiarly adaptable for this purpose. Thus a low tree with dense
foliage may be selected where a low, close wind-break is desired, and
a taller species where a higher and less dense shelter is needed.
Owners of orchards, especially citrus orchards, have found them par-
ticularly beneficial as a break to the strong winds and a protection
during cold weather. (PI. I, b.)

On this point Mr. Nathan W. Blanchard, of Santa Paula, one of the
most extensive growers of citrus fruits in California, in a letter dated
June 11, 1900, makes the following statement:

In reference to Blue Gum wind-breaks, I prefer them to any other. They grow-
rapidly and break the force of the wind, which is what is required. A solid wind-
break like a Monterey Cypress, the wind sometimes falls over and has a twist-
ing effect on the trees, similar to wind coming from a high mountain range. With
my experience in this valley I would plant the wind-breaks about 450 feet apart.

The Limoneira orchards are laid off in sections, putting the Blue Gums 40 rods
apart, but I think this distance is too great and it is too far to run the water econom-
ically. My wind-breaks are about 450 feet apart, and are so effective that one does
not feel the wind at all among the orange trees. Neither is my fruit in the least
impaired by the wind, however strong it may blow down or up the valley. My
orchard ditches are along the wind-breaks, and the trees therefore get all the water
that they need and do not draw upon the moisture of the orchard to the detriment
of the fruit trees. Indeed, I have some orange trees alive that are growing right
under the Blue Gums, bearing some good fruit. If the Blue Gums are sufficiently
supplied with water they have no injurious effect upon the trees other than the shade,
and on the east side of the wind-breaks my trees are more thrifty, or at least bear
more fruit, than the average, while on the west side the shade is somewhat detri-
mental to the amount of fruit that I secure.

Upon the above subject Mr. Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Barbara, in
the letter previously mentioned, writes as follows:

The fruit orchards where protected have larger growth and cleaner leaves and
steins. Less fruit blows off during high winds. 1 know of an orange orchard at
Santa Paula where Eucalyptus trees were planted on the cast and west sides— quite
a distance between. The trees on either side, where protected, were twice as large
as those in the center; in fact the orchard was sloping from tin- protected sides to the
center. The center rows were taken out and Eucalyptus trees planted. The orchard
now shows a uniform appearance.

Mr. Cooper also speaks of the value of the Eucalypts as a wind-
break for grain fields. On this point he says:

In wheat and barley farming I found that in the immediate vicinity of the groves

27719 No. 35—02 — 3

34 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

of Eucalypti there was a much heavier crop and taller straw. Near the ocean, where
the trees protected the grain from sharp sea wind, there was certainly more than
twice as much grain and twice as much straw. The unprotected grain had over one-
third to one-half the heads blasted— no grains in the injured parts. The straw had a
rusty appearance. From facts actually established I have made the statement that
three-fourths of an area will produce more grain or fruit with the other fourth in
forest trees than four- fourths without the forest trees; hence the great economy in
tree planting.

The last statement would not apply to all regions, but of those
swept by heavy winds it is undoubtedly true. There are large areas
in Ventura County, Cal. . that would not be tillable but for the Eucalypts.
Part of the land is so sandy that formerly it was blown about by the
wind, and not only the crops growing in it. but those of adjoining fields
were seriously damaged. The planting of Euealypt wind-breaks has
so moderated the wind velocity that now little damage is ever done
by it. '

MaDV fruit growers in southern California believe that wind-breaks
of Euealypt trees protect their orange and lemon orchards from frosts.
The question was a subject of discussion at a large horticultural meet-
ing held in that section April 29, 1901. In the Los Angeles Times's
report of the meeting is the following:

Four hundred people, representing ten farmers' clubs, met Monday at the ranch
of George Turner, near Cucamonga, to study the system of wind-breaks established
there as a protection against frosts. The visitors were seated among the Eucalyptus
trees which they had come to study. "Frosts in relation to wind-breaks" was the
subject of a paper by John Hoffman, of Cucamonga. In stating the results of his
investigations he said " the temperature is usually higher on the north side of a wind-
break than on the south side," and that, since his orchard had grown large, "the
ground had frozen but once, and that was at a distance from the wind-break."

AS SHADE TREES.

While many of the Eucalypts are not especially desirable shade trees,
the fact that they will grow well in many situations where other trees
make poor growth, or will scarcely grow at all, gives them consider-
able value for this purpose. They are especially suitable for country
roads, for the vicinity of barns and other farm buildings, and for shade
in pastures. As road shade trees, many species have proved very use-
ful in the Southwest and have been much used for this purpose. (PI.
II, a, b.) Mr. Cooper, in the letter already mentioned, writes upon
this point as follows:

The public highway through my ranch, seven-eighths of a mile in length, has a
double row of trees on either side. There is less mud in winter and less dust in sum-
mer than on the road at either approach.

The writer observed the latter fact while there during August. In
regions where there is less sunshine and more rainfall than there is at
Santa Barbara it might be well to plant the trees farther apart on the
sunnier side of the road to permit the road to dry after rains. In many

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 35

oases the trees can be so set along the road as to serve both as a wind-
break against the most disagreeable winds of the region and as shade
trees during summer. (PI. III.) In all cases the fact that these trees
are evergreen, and consequently shade-producing both winter and sum-
mer, must be taken into consideration. In regions where heavy win-
ter rains occur it would not be wise to plant Eucalypts so thickly as to
keep the road from drying.

In many parts of the Southwest the Eucalypts are utilized to advan-
tage to furnish shade in pastures. If set along the fences and along-
irrigating ditches they can be made to protect the animals in the pas-
ture without at any time interfering with farming operations. In the
place of the Cottonwood and other deciduous trees, some Eucalypts
would be an improvement, both in appearance and in usefulness.
Even during the winter, when deciduous trees are leafless, there are
many da}^s w T hen animals in the pasture need shelter from the sun,
and many more when protection against wind and rain is needed.
The Eucalypts would furnish this protection to animals. In addition
thev would be a source of better fuel and timber than most deciduous
trees, and would add much to the appearance of the winter landscape.

AS A SOURCE OF TIMBER.

For Australia and the neighboring islands the Eucalypts are one of
the important sources of the general timber supply, and are the chief
source of the hard-wood timber used there. The uses made of Euca-
lyptus timber are remarkably diverse. It enters into the construction
of buildings, ships, bridges, railroads, piers, telegraph lines, fences,
paving, vehicles, agricultural implements, furniture, barrels, and a
great variety of minor articles. In his Notes on the Commercial
Timbers of New South Wales Mr. Maiden names twenty-five u special
purposes", for which the timber of Eucalypts is used in that colon j.
Six species are named as valuable for bridge timbers, five as valuable
for piles, nine for paving, eight for posts, three for railroad ties, four
for railway coaches, five for lumber and shingles, seven for the vari-
ous parts of vehicles, two for barrels and casks, and two for broom
and tool handles. Eleven "'special purposes" are assigned to the tim-
ber of the Spotted Gum {Eucalyptus mactdata), ten to the timber of
the Ironbark (A\ sideroxylon), eight to that of Red Mahogany (K. res-
inifera) and Tallow Wood (A', microcorys), six to that of Gray Gum
[E. propinqud), five to that of Red Gum \K. rostrata), and a lesser
number to that of seven other species. Not only in Australia ia the
timber of Eucalypts used thus extensively, but it is exported in
targe quantities, the, bulk of the hard-wood lumber shipped being from
these trees. H. Dalyrimple-Hay, in his work entitled The Timber
Trade of New South Wales, names thirteen species that furnish tim-
ber for export. He gives the annual output of lumber from the 108

36 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

mills of the colony as 59,500,000 superficial feet, a large part of which
is from Eucalypt trees. Shipments are made to distant parts of the
globe, including Africa and even England.

The timber of different species of Eucalypts differs very much in
character. While that of all species is hard wood, the degree of hard-
ness, the strength, durability, flexibility, color, and many other quali-
ties are quite different. Great differences exist also in the timber of
the same species grown in different soils and climates. To these varia-
tions is due. largely, the great variety of uses that the timber of these
trees serves.

In America the Eucalypts have not yet been grown long enough
nor extensively enough to have become a source of lumber. The
principal uses made of the timber thus far are for fuel, piles, post.-,
and some of the parts of farming implements, and for pins for insu-
lators on long-distance transmission cables. The species used most
for piles in southern Australia does not thrive in the Southwest, but the
Blue Gum has been found to be a very durable substitute. (PI. IV, a.)
The life of Redwood ( Seqrto/a x<'inj>< .-rrlrt.-ns) and of Oregon Pine {Pseudo-
tsuga taxifolia) piles is from four to seven years on the Pacific coast.
Blue Gum piles last twice as long. The piers at Santa Barbara and at
neighboring sea towns are maintained with piles of this Eucalypt.
Mr. Cooper informs the writer that he has sold from his groves nearly
$10,00(1 worth of piles during the past ten years. At Oceanside the
superior value of Eucalypt piles is reported to have been demonstrated
through the surreptitious acts of a contractor. Lacking a few piles
of the timber specified in the contract (Oregon Pine), he is said to have
obtained some Blue Gum timbers from the vicinity and to have ordered
the night crew to place them on the inside, where their presence would
not be detected. When it became necessary to repair the pier a few
years ago some sound piles were found among others nearly destroyed,
and upon examination they proved to be the Blue Gum trees. The
demand for these piles is now greater than the existing groves of
Eucalypts can supply. It seems probable that piles may become one
of the important crops grown by farmers of the Southwest. As the
trees now planted become larger, and as planting becomes more exten-
sive, the Eucalypts will undoubtedly become sources of much timber
for a great variety of purposes. (PI. IV, b.)

AS A SOURCE OF FUEL.

In Australia the Eucalypts are an important source of fuel. There
the inhabitants find the tree, ready grown for use, and it matters little
to them how long they have taken to reach their present size. Hence
many species are used for this purpose. In America and other coun-
tries where the Eucalypts are grown as exotics the case is quite different.
Only a quick-growing species will yield an early supply of fuel, and

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXI.

EUCAL/PTUS GLOBULUS, SANTA BARBARA, CAL.

a row of tiers 3] years old, ranging in diameter from 3 i<> over 5 feet, They were among the Aral planted in

soul hern California.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXII.

Eucalyptus globulus on Ranch of Ellwood Cooper. Santa Barbara, Cal.

Trees 24 years old. The largest Eucalypl has attained in twenty-four years the diameter thai the oaks have

in over two hundred years.

Bui 35, Bureau of Forestry U, S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XXIII.

Eucalyptus globulus. Timber Cut from Trees in the Background Being used to Build Fence.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXIV.

Eucalyptus gomphocephala. Grove 24 Years Old on the Cooper Ranch.

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 37

hence the Blue Gum among the Eucalypts has been most used for this
purpose. (PI. V, a.)

The Manna Gum {Eucalyptus vbminalis), the species approaching
the Blue Gum most closely in rapidity of growth, has also been cut
considerably for fuel. Other species making a slower growth produce
a harder wood and better fuel. For some years Mr. Cooper has been
cutting stove wood for the Santa Barbara market from his Red Gum
(E. ro&trata) and Red Ironbark (E. skleroxylon) groves, and finds the
fuel from them superior to that from the Blue Gum. (PI. V. b.)
When other species become more generally known, or when plantings
now made have reached a sufficient age, undoubtedly several species
will be found better adapted for fuel than the now much-used Blue
Gum. But at present that is the fuel tree of much of the State of
California. (PL VI, a.)

When set for fuel the young trees are commonly planted either
8 by 8 or 6 by 10 feet apart. Rows 10 feet apart with trees 6 feet apart
in the rows give a few more trees to the acre, and leave more space
between the rows for driving with a wagon. Formerly some growers
planted closer — either 1 by 1 or 1 by 8 feet— and cut out the trees as
they increased in size, until they were left the distance apart they
desired them to be permanently. But so much difficulty was experi-
enced in preventing the growth of the trees desired to be eliminated
that the practice has been almost entirely abandoned. The young
trees are commonly cultivated for about two years after being set out.

In California some of the best agricultural land is used for growing
Blue Gum wood for market, usually in groves of from 10 to 40 acres.
Not only are these groves profitable, but they add much to a landscape
which without them was quite monotonous. Land unsuitable for til-
lage—hillsides, ravines, and rocky plains— is also much utilized. In
such cases the return from the fuel produced is practically a cleai
gain. In July, li>0<>, the writer's attention was attracted to a grove
of Eucalypts near Pasadena, Cal. Subsequently, in response to an
inquiry as to the age of the grove, Mr. H. F. Shorting wrote as
follows:

The Eucal)/j>t us globulus grove is 12 years old, and is in t lie worst sort of soil, for
grapes, oranges, lemons, and barley have all failed. It is an old river bed. It was
cut one year ago, and they are far better looking trees now than they were before
being cut. (PI. VII, a.)

There is undoubtedly much land in the Southwest now considered
too pool- for growing any crop that might profitably be sot to fuel-
producing groves <>t' Eucalypts.

When 5 to T years old. groves of Blue Gum or Manna Gum may be
cut to the ground for fuel, and they may be cut every six or eight
years thereafter. 'Hie yield from each cutting is commonly 50 to 75
cords of 4-foot wood per acre. One L7-acre grove between L<>^

38 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

Angeles and Compton, set in 1880 and cut for the third time in June,
1900, produced 1,360 cords, an average of 80 cords of 1-foot wood per
acre. (PI. VI, b.) The price received by the owner for the crop was
$2.50 per cord on the stump. It will be seen that this return fully
justified the using- of the heaviest of agricultural land for the growth
of fuel. On poorer land the yield is only a third to a half the above
amount. The size attained in good soil a short time after being cut is
often remarkable. (PI. VII.) In a grove near Pasadena, set in 1885
and cut for fuel in 1893, there were in July, 1900, some trees 2 feet in
diameter and many over 100 feet in height.

Mr. Cooper estimates that at the rate his trees are growing he can
cut from his 200 acres of miscellaneous species, set largely in soil too
rough for tillage, 1,000 cords of wood per year indefinitely without in
any way detracting from the appearance of the groves or from their
usefulness in other ways. Judged by the known rate of growth of
smaller groves, the above estimate is not high. The Eucalypt is evi-
dently destined to be the future fuel tree of the Southwest. Even
when settlement in this region began the hard-wood trees were limited
in number, and these are rapidly disappearing under the woodman's
ax. In much of the Southwest the oak has been a source of hard-wood
fuel, but in many places the supply is about exhausted, and in none
can it last indefinitely. Over a good deal of the region the Mesquite
{Prosopis juliflora) has been the chief source of fuel, but even these
trees are rapidly disappearing in the vicinity of the settlements. All
available timber will soon be cut, and there is no known species except
the Eucalyptus that can take its place and at the same time supply the
increasing demand for hard-wood fuel. The extensive planting of
Eucalypts in such localities would be a wise provision for the future.

Not only the wood of the Eucalypts is used for fuel, but in Calfornia
the leaves are utilized for this purpose. A Los Angeles company is
making for market bricks composed of Blue Gum leaves and twigs
mixed with crude oil, and the product is reported to be an excellent
fuel for domestic use. The entire tree is thus utilized. This new use
of Eucalypt leaves suggests the possibility of many industries growing-
out of the extensive planting of the trees in the Southwest.

AS A SOURCE OF OIL.

While the stem and branches of the Eucalypts furnish timber and
fuel, the leaves and twigs are the source of a very important oil. In
Australia many species yield sufficient quantities to enable them to be
utilized for oil production, but most of the oil produced there is
obtained from three or four species. For many years the production
of eucalyptus oil has been an important industry in that country.
One of the first investigators and producers of this oil was J. Bosisto,

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 39

of Melbourne. Baron von Mueller states in the Eucalyptographia
that in 1880 Bosisto was producing 6 tons of oil per year. Since then
the demand for the oil has increased very much, and a much larger
quantity is produced in Australia annually. During the past ten
years considerable eucalyptus oil has been produced from the Blue
Gum plantations in Algeria, it having been found advantageous to
obtain the oil from solid plantations of one species rather than from
native forests where the species grow mixed. In California consider-
able oil has been extracted from the Blue Gum during the past five
years. The principal producer is a physician in Los Angeles, who is
attempting to establish a reputation for putting up a pure high-grade
product. During the winter of 1900-1901 he extracted 9 tons of oil.
He does not distill out any eucalyptol, as he considers the oil in the
form he puts it out superior for most purposes. The residue from
the distillation of the refined oil from the crude product is put up for
a salve. From the oil he manufactures a soap and cough drops.
Hon. Ellwood Cooper has a young Blue Gum plantation on his ranch
near Santa Barbara, from which he intends to manufacture both euca-
lyptus oil and eucalyptol. He will cut the trunk and limbs into fuel,
extract oil from the twigs and leaves, and thus utilize the entire tree.

The different species vary greatly as to the amount of oil the} r will
yield, the range being from none to 500 ounces from 1,000 pounds of
fresh leaves and twigs. According to J. Bosisto and other Australian
authorities and S. M. Woodbridge, of Los Angeles, the Peppermint
Tree {Eucalyptus amygdalvna) yields the largest amount. But in
America this tree is not grown extensively enough for it to be a source
of much oil. For some years yet, and perhaps always, the chief
source of eucalyptus oil here will be the Blue Gum. The yield of
crude oil from the leaves and twigs of this species ranges from 1 to
1.0 per cent. Dr. Herron extracted, during the past season. 9 tons of
oil from TOO tons of leaves and twigs from this species— a yield of
1.28 per cent. H. B. Silkwood, proprietor of the Calif ornia Eucalyp-
tus Works, Garden Grove, Gal., reports that he produced 1 ton of oil
from 100 tons of material during the past year, the output being
limited by the available supply of Blue Gum leaves. The Red (nun
yields much less oil than the Blue Gum— only L0 to 30 per cent as much.

The oils from the different species of Eucalypts differ greatly. As
extracted they are all compounds or mixtures. The chief ingredient
of the oil from the Blue Gum is a colorless, transparent, camphora-
ceous liquid called eucalyptol or cineol; of the Peppermint Tree
(Eucalyptus amygdalina), a less known Liquid called phellandrene; of
the Lemon-scented Eucalypi (A', cltriodora), a fragrant, highly vola-
tile liquid called citronellon, mixed with another fragrant liquid called
ereraniol. Several other ingredients enter into the composition of
the oils from the various species. The besl known of all themgre-

40 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

clients is eucalyptol, which constitutes about 60 per cent of the oil
from the Blue Gum.

The medicinal properties of the various component parts of eucalyp-
tus oil differ widely. Hence the oils from different species have very
different medicinal values. Unless eucalyptol, the chief ingredient of
Blue Gum oil, has the same effect upon the human system as phelland-
rene, the prominent ingredient of the Peppermint Tree oil, the oils
from these two trees must necessarily have different medicinal proper-
ties, and the oil from a forest of mixed species must have very uncertain
medicinal properties. The Eucalyptus oil produced in America, where
the groves from which leaves are obtained for oil are commonly of one
species, and where, with rare exceptions, a single species (Blue Gum)
is the source of all the oil extracted, will necessarily be a product
whose properties are better known and more constant than that pro-
duced from mixed native forests. Hence the importation of eucalyp-
tol or Eucalyptus oil from Australia or elsewhere is both unnecessary
and a disadvantage to the consumer. As Hon. Abbot Kinney remarks
in his ''Eucalyptus"':

The increased use of tin- eucalyptus oils derived from the solid plantations of
E. globulus in California and Algiers is thus seen to rest upon reasonahle grounds and
must give increased reliability to medicinal preparations from the Eucalyptus.

Eucalyptus oil is so useful, and popular information concerning it is
so meager, that a few words concerning it will not be out of place here.
This oil has been used for about forty years, but only during the past
ten years has it been employed in medicine very extensively. Its use
is now constantly increasing, as its properties and medicinal value
become better known. All druggists questioned on the subject stated
that the demand for Eucalyptus oil was rapidly increasing. Two
wholesale druggists of Los Angeles both stated in. letters to the writer,
written in response to inquiries on this point, that their sales of 'the
oil had increased very much during the past few years.

The fact that it is nonpoisonous and nonirritant makes it especially
safe and valuable. As much as a fourth of an ounce has been taken
internally without injury, and it may be freely applied to the most
delicate tissue. Notwithstanding the fact that it is neither danger-
ously poisonous nor irritating to the human system, it is a very effective
antiseptic and disinfectant, and has come to be used quite extensively
for dressing wounds, ulcers, and other diseased tissues. It enters into
the- composition of several antiseptic preparations. The oil is also a
well-known remedy for malarial and other fevers, and is used in treat-
ing diseases of the skin, and of the stomach, kidneys, and bladder, and
is especially valuable for affections of the throat, bronchi, and lungs.

In using Eucalyptus oil it is important that a pure article be pro-
cured. Unfortunately there is considerable adulteration of this oil
with cheaper, inert, or harmful ones. No doubt this remedy would

Bui 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. b. Dept. ot Agriculture.

PLATE XXV.

A. Eucalyptus goniocalyx. Trees 24 Years Old.

B. Eucalyptus tereticornis. Trees 22 Years Old.

Eucalypts on Ranch of Ellwood Cooper, Santa Barbara, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXVL

Eucalyptus hemiphloia. Tree 4 Years Old, Experiment Station Farm, Phoenix, Ariz.

Bui 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXVII.

Eucalyptus hemiphloia. Trees 24 Years Old, Cooper Ranch, Santa Barbara, Cal.

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 41

be a more popular one but for the fact that so much of the oil for sale
on the market is of such an uncertain nature. The safest way is to
purchase none in bulk, but buy it in bottles put up by a reliable per-
son or firm. It costs more in this form, but is far safer to use as a
remedy.

The leaves of the Blue Gum and of a few other species, on account
of the oil they contain, are emploj^ed as household remedies in local-
ities where the trees grow. Among- the natives of Australia they are
said to be in common use for dressing wounds and for other purposes.
In Calif ornia, teas and poultices are made from the Blue Gum leaves
for treating colds, wounds, and ulcers. The leaves are also steamed
for the treatment of colds, catarrh, croup, bronchitis, and other affec-
tions of the respiratory system. Some go so far as to use regularly
tea made from the leaves of Blue Gum, and, as they assert, with bene-
ficial results.

AS A SOURCE OF HONEY.

The Eucalypts generally bloom so freely and so early in their devel-
opment that as a group they are an important source of nectar for bees.
The fact that some species can be found in bloom airy day of the year,
often during droughts when other blossoms are scarce, in many cases
in great profusion, makes them especially valuable as a constant source
of bee food. Mr. Kinney, who has made extended observations on
the blooming of the Eucalypts, writes in his "Eucalyptus:"

Taking the sixty species and marked varieties of this genus in southern California,
I have never seen a day that flowers could not he found on some of them. * * *
When we consider the free production of nectar by the Eucalyptus at seasons when
there is little or no other resource for bees, and also the claimed medicinal value of
honey from Eucalyptus flowers for relieving irritation from the mucous membrane,
and as a nerve sedative, the presumption is strongly in its favor. Bee men will
doubtless tind it to their interest to study the species and plant iu waste places such
sorts as will furnish the best kinds of nectar during the most difficult season for the
bees. * * * I believe that by some study of this subject species of Eucalyptus
with plenty of nectar could be so selected as to give a constant crop of flowers or
flowers at such times as these are absent in other plants.

Naudin, in his '"Description and Use of Eucalyptus," says of their
value as a source of honey:

Another use of the Eucalyptus * * * is supplying the bees with abundant pro-
visions for food by their flowers, from which they withdraw a perfumed honey,
endowed perhaps with peculiar hygienic properties.

Whether or not the Eucalypts give a peculiar medicinal quality to
the honey may be a question, but it is certain that they are a valuable
pasture for the bees.

Since Mr. Kinney wrote the above, beekeepers have become more
interested in the Eucalypts as a source of nectar. William Shutt,
foreman of the Santa Monica Forestry Station, informs the writer that

42 ETJCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

he receives many inquiries concerning- the merits of certain species for
bee pasture. In a subsequent portion of this publication will be found
a list of the species useful for this purpose. In planting trees for
forest cover, wind-breaks, shade, timber, or fuel it would be well,
wherever the bee industry is important, to select varieties recognized
as flower producers. Several species valuable for the purposes men-
tioned above — notably the Sugar Gum {Eucalyptus corynoeabyx), the
Red Gum (E. rostrata), the Red Iron bark (E. siderovylon), E. hemi-
phloia, and E. polyanthema — are profuse bloomers-and are thronged
with bees during the blooming season, which with some species is
quite protracted.

AS IMPROVERS OF CLIMATE.

The Eucalvpts have the reputation of benefiting the climate of those
regions where they have been planted. Evidence upon this subject
is so conflicting, however, that the truth is ascertained with difficulty.
Whatever the fact may be, the belief is quite general, especially in
southern Europe, that the effect of Eucalvpts upon the climate is
distinctly sanatory.

The plantation of Eucalvpts at Tres Eontane, in the Roman Cam-
pagna, is the instance most generally cited by those who contend for
the beneficial influence of these trees on the climate. In fact, the general
planting of Eucalvpts throughout southern Europe seems to have been
given a decided impetus by reports of the results at Tres Fontane. On
this point Charles Belmont Davis. American consul at Florence in
1894, writes in Consular Reports No. 168 as follows:

It is this latter quality [the property of distributing a balsamic atmosphere] which
has brought the Eucalyptus into such prominence in Italy, and has been the cause
not only of the planting of thousands of trees by private individuals and public cor-
porations, but of its receiving the indorsement of the Italian Government as well.

He adds:

Whether the plant does absolutely contain such a healthful quality as many
attribute to it has always been and still is a question in the minds of many who
have given the subject intelligent thought and systematic experiment. That the
planting of these trees has met in some districts with a degree of success in allaying
the ravages of malaria there would seem to be little doubt.

In the consular report mentioned above Wilbur B. Hall, American
consul at Nice, writes:

The Eucalyptus seems destined to revolutionize silviculture in the countries men-
tioned [France, Algeria, Italy, Spain, Corsica, Portugal, and Cape Colony], notonly on
account of the many remarkable properties of the tree, its resin, its wood, and its
rapid growth, but also its great power of absorbing enormous quantities of water
from wet and swampy lands, drying them and rendering them tit for cultivation, as
well as its tendency to thus eliminate malarial conditions from the lands whence it
grows.

M. Carlotti, who has studied Eucalvpts exhaustively on the island of

USES OF EUCALYPTS. 43

Corsica, in his "Rendering warm, unhealthy regions healthy by means
of the Eucalyptus," cites a large number of instances of improved
climate attributed to the planting of Eucalypts.

M. Lambert makes similar statements as to the effect of planting
these trees in Algeria. M. Gimbert also cites examples of the improve-
ment of climate in Algeria, as well as in Cape Colony and other parts
of Africa, due to the planting of Eucalypts. It is asserted by many
Californians that the planting of Eucalypts has diminished the amount
of malaria in central California. Others in various parts of the world
have made similar claims.

On the other hand, some who have investigated the subject maintain
that the fact of the improvement of climate by Eucalypts ia not estab-
lished. Perhaps the ablest of those who have combated the popular
belief in the sanatory effect of Eucalypts is Prof. Tomaso Crudeli, who
has investigated the subject carefully in Italy. He insists that up
to the date of his writing (1886), "not a single instance of hygienic
improvement by the sole means of Eucalypti has been ascertained, but
the possibility of so doing is not denied. 1 '

Wallace S. Jones, American consul at Rome in 1894, writes as fol-
lows in Consular Report No. 168:

In Italy, although the newspapers had persuaded everyone that the farm of the
Tres Fontane, near Rome, had become healthful by means of the Eucalypti, it proved
a disagreeable surprise to learn of a sudden outbreak of malaria in 1882 that caused
much sickness among the farm hands, while the rest of theCampagna remained per-
fectly healthy. * * * Dr. Montechiare, a practicing physician of Rome, who for
years was physician to the penal colony at Tres Fontane, tells me that his experience
justifies him in declaring that no beneficial result against malaria has been derived
from the planting of the Eucalyptus.

Those who fail to recognize the beneficial effects of the planting of
Eucalypts also call attention to the fact that malaria prevails in many
parts of Australia where these trees are abundant. It seems to be
admitted, however, that malaria is absent, or at least riot prevalent, in
those parts of Australia where the Blue Gum, the species that is
believed to have produced the beneficial result about the Mediterranean,
is native or thrives. Whether this coincidence, if such it be. is due to
the natural climate or to the effects of these trees would be somewhat
difficult to decide.

It is probable that considerable of the change in the sanitary condi-
tion of those places said to have been benefited by Eucalypts has been
due to other causes, such as the making of drainage ditches, etc.. and
this will partially account for the conflicting opinions on the subject.
When, however, the. nature and habit of the trees are considered, it
is entirely reasonable to believe that to a certain extent they bene-
ficially affect the atmosphere in the region of their growth. The
grounds for this belief are: First, their great capacity for absorbing
moisture from the soil, and thus reducing the quantity of stagnant

44 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

water in the ground at their roots; second, their corresponding power
of giving off fresh from their foliage the water thus taken up by their
roots; third, the exhalation from their leaves and other parts of vola-
tile oils, which affect the climate not onlv directlv but by ehanpfino-
the oxygen of the atmosphere to ozone; fourth, the purification of
germ-infested matter by the foliage dropped upon the ground or in
pools of standing water. From the combined action of these four
characteristics is seems reasonable to believe that the trees would be
beneficial to many climates.

It is not necessary to determine, however, before setting Eucalvpts,
whether they have a pronounced beneficial effect upon climate or not.
The}- certainly do not injure a climate. They serve so many other
useful purposes that the question as to their effect upon climate may
be waived, and the planting- of them still go on from other motives.
The belief that they improve climate has served a useful purpose
regardless of the facts in the matter. The planting of trees is such a
desirable thing that it matters little what the motive for planting them
be, provided they get planted. Eucalvpts may confidently be grown
for a forest cover, for wind-breaks, for shade, for timber, for fuel,
for the oil and the honey they furnish, and if, at the same time, they
improve the sanitary condition of the region in which they are grow-
ing, the reward of the planter will be so much the greater.

PROPAGATION AND CARE OF EUCALYPTS.
DIFFICULTIES IN GROWING SEEDLINGS.

Eucalypts are less easily propagated in America than most other forest
trees. This is due in part to the smallness of their seeds and the infer-
tility of many of them, and in part to the fact that each species
requires or at least prefers, certain peculiar climatic conditions. Few
grow spontaneously in the Southwest yet, and none do so freely. The
Red Gum and the Blue Gum are occasionally found growing spontane-
ously from fallen seed, and at Mr. Cooper's ranch near Santa Barbara
Red Gum seedlings were seen by the writer in abundance under trees
in shaded canyons, and in washes below the trees. (PL VIII.) Mr.
Cooper also pointed out trees about a foot in diameter that had grown
from volunteer seedlings. Southwest of Los Angeles, near the ocean,
where the temperature is even and the atmosphere more humid than
farther inland, young seedlings often appear in the groves of Blue
Gums, and this occurs in similar situations in central California, being-
very noticeable on the universit}^ campus at Berkeley. On the Min-
ncwawa ranch, near Fresno, seedlings of Eucalyptus radix appear under
the trees in abundance each spring, and are used by the owner for
planting. (PI. VIII, b.)

In some regions species which grow fairly thriftily when once started

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XXVIII.

Eucalyptus leucoxylon, State Forestry Station, Santa Barbara, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XXIX.

Eucalyptus leucoxylon. Tree 10 Years Old, Capitol Grounds, Phoenix, Ariz.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

Plate XXX.

Eucalyptus longifolia. Pasadena, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXXI.

Eucalyptus melliodora, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal.

PROPAGATION AND CARE OF EUCALYPTS. 45

are propagated from the seed with great difficulty. For example, the
Red Gum {Eucalyptus rostrata), which grows quite well in southern
Arizona from seedlings obtained from California, is propagated at
Phoenix from seed with considerable difficult}'. The case is similar
to that of the orange tree, which, though thriving in the vicinity of
Phoenix can not be easily grown there from seed. As a rule, however,
Eucalypts that are well adapted to a region and thrive in it seem to
be fairly easy to propagate there. The ease with which seedlings
can be grown in any region may often, therefore, be taken as an
indication of how well the adult trees will grow there.

Eucalypts are not commonly propagated in open soil, but in seed
boxes, and ordinarily they need some protection from cold and from
the sun during their early stages. Most species make a slow growth
at first and are quite delicate, but when once fairly established they
grow very rapidly.

PLANTING THE SEED.

The usual method of starting Eucalypts is to sow the seed in shallow
boxes in especially prepared soil. A mixture of coarse sand and leaf-
mold (two parts of mold to one of sand) is the best. This is placed in
boxes a few inches deep; the seed is strewn quite thickly over the sur-
face; a light covering of sand is placed on top, and this surface is then
kept constantly moist. The young plants commonly appear in one or
two weeks. After germination has taken place the soil should be kept
moist but not wet. If kept too damp the young plants will be attacked
by parasitic fungi and perish rapidly— " damp off,' 1 as gardeners term
it. Applying the water about the middle of the forenoon, so that the
soil and plants have time to become partially dry before night, is a
precaution helpful in preventing damping off. In the experience of
the writer there is nothing better for freshly sown seed, or for young
plants, than a watering by a rainfall. Leaving the seed boxes out
during a light rain will often start seed that artificial watering for
weeks has failed to bring up, and young plants are very much refreshed
and invigorated by a shower of rain.

Before transplanting it is well to harden the young plants by giving
them only sufficient water to prevent wilting during the heat of the
day. After a week or so, when they have become more woody, water
should he applied freely for a few days, and they will then be in a
better condition for transplanting than if this treatment is omitted.

TRANSFERRING TO FRESH SOIL.

When the young seedlings arc -2 or ?> inches high, they should be
transplanted into Hats of fresh soil, putting in the plants about 2
inches apart each way. (PI. IX. a.) This soil may contain Lesssandand
more leaf mold than the seed bed. A mixture of leaf mold, sand, and

46 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATES.

some soil similar to that in which the} T are to be set in the field is a
good combination. If the plants are few and choice, it is usually best
to transfer them from the seed bed to pots instead of to flats. From
the pots they can be transplanted with less loss than from the boxes.
They still need frequent watering, but the surface of the soil does not
need to be kept as moist as during- the earlier stages of growth. For
a few days after being transferred they often need additional protec-
tion from drying. When they have become well established it is well
to expose them to the sun and the outdoor air sufficiently to harden
them before transplanting to the field.

The work of propagating Eucalyptus seedlings is not always accom-
plished successfully by those without experience in gardening or
greenhouse w T ork. Where the climatic conditions are at all trying,
unless one has had some experience in propagating evergreen plants
from small seeds, it will be better to purchase the trees of a grower.
In the dry valleys of the interior it is especially difficult to grow
young Eucalypts successfully. So many are lost from various causes,
but largely because of the dryness of the atmosphere, that it will be
found more economical to procure the plants from some grower
located in a more favorable region.

But it is important that plants be purchased of a reliable grower.
The species of Eucalypts are so numerous, the seeds so small, and the
different species so similar in the earliest stages of growth, that it is
easy for honest confusion to arise in the mind of a grower who is not
conscientiously careful. When to this is added unscrupulousness, the
danger of not getting the species desired or (tailed for is quite great.
The Blue Gum seedlings are so well known that growers or buyers
are seldom deceived in them. But it is not safe to buy any other spe-
cies of any but a thoroughly reliable grower. Many nurserymen, if
they have not the species called for, or are so ignorant as to be
unacquainted with it, will substitute some entirely different species,
thinking the purchaser will not know the difference, at least for some
years. Last spring (1901) a Los Angeles nurseryman sold a farmer
plants of Eucalyptus robusta for both Sugar Gum (K corynocatyx) and
Red Gum (E. rostrata), the former in cans and the latter in flats.

SETTING IN THE FIELD.

When the seedlings are from 1 to 8 inches high they are right for
setting in the field. (PI. IX, b.) They usually attain this size when
they are from 1 to 6 months old, but species vary considerably as
to the time required to bring them to the given size. They bear
transplanting better, and make a better start after being set out, at
this age, than they do when older and larger. In some parts of the
South and Southwest they can be set out in the field almost any time dur-
ing the year. In other localities it is difficult to get them started in the

PROPAGATION AND CAEE OF EUCALYPTS. 47

field except during certain seasons. In California they are commonly
set out from February to May, but may be set considerably earlier or
later in many parts of the State. Where heavy frosts occur during
the winter it is best to wait until the danger of their occurrence is
over, as many Eucalypts that endure frost when older are quite sensi-
tive when young. In southern Arizona the best months for setting-
are March and April, just after the winter rains, and July and August,
during the summer rains. They can be started most successfully there
during the latter part of March.

If the Eucalypts are being set primarily for shade they may be set
in single or double rows, 10 to 20 feet apart in the rows, along fences
or irrigating ditches, or on each side of a road; or they may be scat-
tered about the barnyard or the stockyard. But if they are being set
for timber or for fuel it is best to set them 8 to 16 feet apart each way in
solid blocks. When set in this manner they grow straighter (thus
making more serviceable timber), split more readily for fuel, and are
in every way more useful than if they grow scattered about and exposed
to distorting winds. Some species, like the Red Gum, that are slen-
der and easily distorted by the wind the first .year or two, will grow
straighter if corn be planted among them. In regions where the sun
is trying the corn serves as a partial shade, as well as a wind-break.
But as stated before, Eucalypts thrive best in bright sunlight, and it
is not well to permit the corn to encroach too closely upon the young-
plants.

SUBSEQUENT CARE.

The young plants should be given some water when set out, and in
many cases the watering will need to be continued for some time.
How long after setting the application of water should continue will
depend upon the climate, and upon the weather that follows. In the
coast region of California, where night and morning fogs are frequent,
little artificial watering is necessary. Farther inland trees need to be
watered for several weeks at least. In the dry valleys of southern
Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas they should be irrigated at least
throughout the first season, and will make more satisfactory growth
if irrigation be continued several vears. After their root system
is well established a few irrigations during winter when water is
abundant will be all the}' they will need in most of this region. If set
along irrigating ditches or canals it will be necessary to water them
by hand only a few months, until the roots have pushed down into
the permanently moist soil.

As most of the Eucalypts arc quite delicate plants when small, they
will need careful attention the first season. They should be cultivated
and kept entirely I'n'r from weeds for from one to three years, accord;
ing to the species and the condition of the soil. In many cases they

48 EUCALYPTS CULTIVATED IN THE UNITED STATE*.

will need some protection from animals. Rabbits and other rodents
sometimes nibble off young plants. If these animals can not be
destroyed or excluded from the field, it will be necessary to protect
each seedling- from their ravages by means of a sheath of woven wire
or other suitable material.

The great usefulness of the trees and the considerable length of
time they are likely to remain where planted warrant the planter in
giving the young plants all the attention they need until they become
established. The Blue Gum is one of the easiest of the genus to start
and needs less attention than most species, but it should be cultivated
and protected from rodents for at least the first season. Any species
should lie given at least as much care as Avould be given a field of
corn. The cost per acre for the care of the young seedlings need not
be much greater than the cost of caring for a corn crop. To set
young trees and then leave them to struggle with weeds, to suffer for
want of water, or be injured by animals is not economical. Eucalypts,
like most trees, will endure quite unfavorable conditions when once
established, but they need careful attention until they become thus
fitted to cope with such conditions.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. ot Agriculture.

Plate XXXII.

Eucalyptus microtheca, Montecito, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U S Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XXXIII.

Eucalyptus ocudlntalis, near Santa Monica, Cal.

Bui. 35, Bureau of Forestry, U S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Plate XXXIV.

, I $

f

Eucalyptus paniculata, State Forestry Station, Santa Monica, Cal.

Bui 35, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture.

Plate XXXV.

Eucalyptus pilularis, near Santa Monica, Cal.

PART III.

PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF ETJCALYPTS GROWN IN AMERICA.

In discussing the following species of Eucalypts the aim has been to
use as few technical terms as possible. However, the species of the
genus Eucalyptus are so numerous (about 150), and have been known
to the civilized world for such a comparatively short time, that satis-
factory popular names have not yet been assigned to many of them.
Hence, it has been necessary to head the discussion of each species with
the scientific name, adding whenever practicable a common name.

To be sure, the majority of species discussed here are known to
have names applied to them Irv the aborigines of Australia, and the
English colonists have assigned names to most of them. But the dif-
ferent native tribes, and the colonists as well, have different names
for the same species. For example, Eucalyptus microtheca has seven
known native names and six colonial ones; and E. viminal'i* and E.
amygdaUna are each known by nine different colonial names. To add
to the confusion, the same English name is applied to many different spe-
cies. As illustrations of this, the term " Blue Gum " is applied to twelve
species; the term "Flooded Gum " is applied to seven species; the term
"Ironbark" to eight species; the name "Red Gum"' 1 to nine species;
the name "Stringy-bark 1 ' to eleven species, and the name "White
Gum " to thirteen species. As Abbot Kinney observes in his work
"Eucalyptus," each district in Australia has a nomenclature of its own
for the Eucalypts, and thus the common names are, with few excep-
tions, confused and uncertain.

As there are already over fifty different species of Eucah<pts grown in
America it will undoubtedly be a good many years before many of them
will be known popularly by well-established common names. In the
meantime it will be necessary to continue using the scientific names in
order to designate them accurately. Eucalyptus gl-obukts, on account of
its predominance in the Southwest, has come to be well known as the Blue
Gum, but at least one of the eleven other species known by this name
in Australia, which is also a promising species for parts of America
(namely. /:'. leucoxylon), is entitled on account of its general aspect to
be known here by this same name. If by common consent the latter
could come to be known as the " White Gum," in reference to the white
bark and